CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 DECLARATION I, Mercy.R, do hereby declare that this thesis entitled "CONSTRAINTS I N THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA" is a bonafide record of research work carried out by me under the guidance and supervision of Dr.C.P.Sreekantan Nair. I do declare that this thesis has not been submitted by me fully or partly for the award of any Degree, Diploma, Title or Recognition before. Calicut University Campus, 1 6 - 10-2005 CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 Dr.C.P. Sreekantan Nair Formerly Professor of Education, Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady. (Pulipra, Kalliyoor P . 0 Trivandrum-42) CERTIFICATE I, Dr.C.P.Sreekantan Nair, do hereby certify that the thesis entitled 'CONSTRAINTS I N THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA" is a bonafide work carried out by Smt.Mercy.R, Research Scholar, under my guidance and supervision and that no part of this work has been submitted for any other Degree, Diploma, Title or Recognition before. She is allowed to submit the thesis for the award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Education of the University of Calicut. Dr.C.P. r ekantan Nair , p k CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The investigator records her immense debt of gratitude to Dr. C.P.Sreekantan Nair M A., MEd., Ph. D., her supervising teacher and guide. During all phases of this study he was a source of inspiration and strength. The investigator is extremely thanfi l to him for all the valuable help he had rendered in this connection. The investigator extends her gratitude and obligation to Dr.Sumangla. V , Head of Department of Education, University of Calicut and Dr.P.Kelu, Professor of the Department of Education, University of Calicut for their whole hearted co-operation during the many phases of the study. The investigator is thanljCu1 to Dr. Meera.K. P Lecturer, A? S. S Training college, Ottapalam for providing necessary help during the course of her study. The investigator is also grateful to Heads of Schools, teachers, tribal pupils, tribal parents, social workers, educational experts, for their co- operation for the successful conduct of the study. She is thankjfiul to the Director of Scheduled Tribe Development Department, Director of Public Instruction, District educational oficers and District officers of Scheduled Tribe Development Department of selected districts for providing necessary help and co-operation to carry out the research properly. The investigator is also deeply indebted to her parents, brothers and sisters who loved and encouraged her for the completion of the work. The investigator would also like to express her deep gratitude to her husband SriL.S.Samuel Jacob and son Sanjo Samuel for their sincere and patient encouragement for the completion of the present research. Lastly the investigator would like to extend her sincere thanks to all her well wishers and piends who helped her in accomplishing the present research. Calicut University Campus, 16 -1 0-2005 CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter Title I INTRODUCTION I1 TRIBES IN KERALA I11 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE IV METHODOLOGY V ANALYSIS V1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS BIBLIOGRAPHY APPENDICES Page No. 1-12 13-35 36-82 83-1 19 120-297 298-3 13 CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 LIST OF TABLES Table. No. Title Page No. District-wise distribution of tribes folk in Kerala. 14 Details regarding the habitat of different Tribes in : 19 Kerala Development of Primitive tribes - Financial and 21 physical Achievements during Annual plan 1991- 92, 1992-93, 1993-94, 1995-96 and 1996-97 (Special Central Assistance scheme) Distribution of scheduled tribe workers in Kerala : 22 Number of tribal families living below poverty line : 24 Rank of Kerala in literacy 27 District-wise literacy rates of Scheduled tribes in : 28 Kerala Literacy rates in India 1941-1991 (Male/Female) : 30 Growth rates in women's literacy (ST/General) 30 Sex-wise and community - wise literacy 31 rates - 1991. Institutions functioning under scheduled Tribes 32 Development Department in Kerala Aid for pre-matric pupils 33 Sex-wise distribution of tribal pupils 95 Age-wise distribution of scheduled tribe pupils 95 Standard-wise distribution of tribal pupils 96 Tribe-wise distribution of pupils 97 Mother tongue-wise distribution of tribal pupils 98 Educational status of parents of the tribal pupils : 98 Educational status of siblings of tribal pupils 99 Designation-wise distribution of teachers 100 , Sex-wise distribution of teachers 101 Community-wise distribution of teachers Qualification - wise distribution of teachers Experience - wise distribution of teachers Subject - wise distribution of teachers Number of tribal pupils taught by teachers Tribe-wise distribution of parents Occupation of tribal parents Monthly income-wise distribution of the family of the tribal parents Educational status-wise distribution of tribal parents Family structure-wise distribution of tribal parents School going children of tribal parents Unenroled children of tribal parents Community- wise distribution of social workers Religion-wise distribution of social workers Experience-wise distribution of social workers Category-wise classification of social workers Educational status-wise distribution of educational experts Experience of the educational experts Table showing tribal hamlets selected for participant observation Enrolment of tribal pupils at the primary school level Enrolment of tribal pupils at the upper primary school level Enrolment of tribal pupils at the secondary school level Total enrolment of tribal pupils from 1956-57 to 2003 - 04 in all standards. District-wise enrolment of tribal pupils from 1975-76 on words Section and management-wise distribution of tribal pupils Drop out percentage of scheduled tribe pupils from 1997-98 to 2001-02. Occupation of fathers of scheduled tribe pupils Occupation of mothers of tribal pupils Monthly income of tribal families Residential accommodation of tribal pupils Types of houses of tribal pupils Facilities available in the houses of tribal pupils for study Details of tribal pupils helping parents after school hours. Details of tribal pupils working for wages during : school days Table showing details of tribal pupils working for : wages during holidays. Table showing parental demand to discontinue education for want of finance. Table showing previous discontinuation because : of financial crisis Table showing whether prevailing financial difficulties affect education adversely Table showing the types of difficulties confronted : with due to poor financial conditions Social factors adversely affecting the education of : the tribal pupils Economic factors adversely affecting the education of the tribal pupils. Parental opinion regarding their poor financial position affecting the education of their children Ways by which poor financial condition of tribal : parents affect the education of their children Tribal pupils sent to work for wages Working schedule of tribal pupils Reasons for sending tribal pupils to work for wages Whether education is hindered because of working for wages Types of hindrances faced by tribal pupils because they work for wages Socio-economic factors affecting the education of tribal pupils: opinion of social workers Suggestions to overcome socio-economic constraints in tribal education: opinion of social workers Socio-economic factors adversely affecting the education of tribal pupils: opinion of educational experts Suggestions of educational experts to overcome socio-economic constraints in the education of tribal pupils Data showing governmental educational incentives received by tribal pupils Adequacy of educational incentives Table showing the impact inadequate incentives upon the education of tribal pupils Data showing additional incentives sought by tribal pupils Data showing tribal pupils residing in tribal hostels Advantages of residing in hostels Data showing distance from residence to schools Mode of travel of tribal pupils from residence to schools Data showing the desire of tribal pupils to join tribal hostels Possible advantages of joining tribal hostels: opinion of tribal pupils Data showing possibility of education if incentives are withdrawn Table showing the adequacy of educational incentives: opinion of teachers Additional incentives sought for tribal pupils: teachers opinion Incentives received for the education of tribal children: parental opinion Spending of educational incentives: parental opinion Adequacy of the incentives received: parental opinion Adequacy of the different types of incentives received : parental opinion Possible impact of inadequate incentives upon the education of tribal pupils: parental opinion Additional incentives sought by tribal parents Chances of discontinuation of education if incentives are withdrawn Adequacy of the educational incentives: opinion of social workers Additional educational incentives sought for tribal pupils by social workers Adequacy of educational incentives: opinion of Educational experts Additional incentives sought for tribal pupils by educational experts Table showing opinion of tribal pupils about the attitude of parents towards their education Parental attitude towards education Ways in which parental attitude affect the education of their children Table showing encouragement from parents for education Compulsion from parents to study at home Nature of compulsion of tribal parents to study at home Study after school hours Time spent for study after school hours Table showing reasons for not studying after school hours. Additional spending of money by tribal parents Additional amount spent by parents per month Data showing the attitude of tribal parents towards education: teachers opinion Data showing percentage of tribal parents having unfavourable attitude towards education: opinion of teachers Data showing ways by which unfavourable parental attitude affect the education of tribal children Tribal parental attitude towards the education of their male children Expected level of education for male children Reasons for not showing favourable attitude towards the education of boys Data showing the tribal parental attitude towards the education of their female children Expected level of education for girls Reasons given by tribal parents for having unfavourable attitude towards the education of their girl children Compulsion to study at home Duration of compulsion to study at home Data showing how unfavourable parental attitude affect the education of tribal children Ways by which unfavourable parental attitude affect the education of tribal children Table showing receipt of special consideration from teachers Table showing discrimination from teachers Additional help from teachers Kinds of additional help received from teachers: student opinion Lack of additional help affecting education Types of difficulties experienced in the absence of : additional help from teachers: student opinion Expectation about further additional help from teachers: student opinion Kinds of additional further help anticipated from : teachers: student opinion Existence of additional difficulties while teaching : tribal pupils: teacher opinion Kinds of difficulties confronted in teaching tribal : pupils: teacher opinion. Extension of additional help to tribal pupils Kinds of additional help provided by teachers Extension of additional help to tribal pupils: Parental opinion Kinds of additional help extended by teachers: Parental opinion The positive impact of additional help on the education of tribal pupils: Parental opinion Impact of no additional help by teachers on the : education of tribal pupils: parental opinion Lack of additional help from teachers and its impact on education Kinds of additional help anticipated from teachers : Impact of lack of additional help from teachers upon the education of tribal pupils. Data showing additional help extended by teachers in the education of tribal pupils Kinds of more additional help expected from teachers: Opinion of educational experts Table showing impact of lack of additional help from teachers on the education of tribal pupils Existence of academic constraints Types of academic constraints confronted by tribal pupils Existence of academic constraints among tribal pupils: opinion of teachers. Types of academic constraints: opinion of teachers Suggestions by teachers to overcome academic constraints Existence of academic constraints: parental opinion Types of academic constraints: parental opinion Academic constraints of tribal pupils: opinion of social workers Containing academic constraints: suggestions by social workers Academic constraints of tribal pupils: opinion of educational experts Educational experts suggestions to overcome academic constraints Table showing the adequacy of laboratory facilities. Adequacy of librarylreading room facilities Adequacy of school building facilities Adequacy of furniture in schools Availability of teachers Facilities for CO-curricular activities Availability of play ground facilities Inadequate school facilities affecting education Ways in which inadequate school facilities affect education adversely Improvement in school facilities and increase in the learning: student's opinion Ways by which increase in school facilities promote education Adequacy of school facilities. Ways in which inadequate school facilities affect the education of tribal pupils Improvement in school facilities and increasing learning: teachers opinion Ways by which increase in school facilities promote learning of tribal pupils Adequacy of school facilities: Parental opinion Ways in which inadequate school facilities affect the education of tribal pupils Improvement in school facilities and increase in learning: Parental opinion Adequacy of prevailing facilities: opinion of social workers Ways in which inadequate school facilities affects the education of tribal pupils: opinion of Social workers Ways by which increase in school facilities promote education : opinion of Social workers Adequacy of prevailing school facilities: opinion of educational experts Ways in which inadequate school facilities affect adversely the education of tribal pupils: opinion of educational experts. Ways in which increase in school facilities promote education: opinion of educational experts. Dig ram No. DIAGRAM Title Page No. 1 Drop out rate (O/O) 1997-98 To 2001-02 133 CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix I. Questionnaire to Scheduled Tribe Pupils (English version) 11. Questionnaire to Scheduled Tribe Pupils (Malayalam version) 111. Questionnaire to Teachers in Schools (English version) IV. Questionnaire to Teachers in schools (Malayalam version) V. Questionnaire to Scheduled Tribe Parents (English version) VI. Questionnaire to Scheduled Tribe Parents (Malayalam version) VII. Structured Interview Schedule for Social workers VIII. Structured Interview schedule for Educational experts CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION +:* Introduction *:+ Need and Importance of the study +:+ Statement of the problem 4 Definition of terms +:+ Objectives of the study +:+ Scope and limitation of the study +:+ Methodology in brief O Organization of Research Report INTRODUCTION The tribal population is found in almost all parts of the world. India has a very large concentration of tribal population. These tribes are believed to be the earliest settlers in Indian Peninsula. They are the earliest inhabitants of the country, who were unable to defend themselves and were gradually forced to recede before the invading hoards of such people as the Dravidians, Indo-Aryans and Mangolians coming from the west, north-west and north east respectively who were not only superior in numerical strength but also in mechanical equipment. Though the tribes were the original inhabitants; for centuries they were treated as second class citizens, kept in ignorance and thus relegated from the main stream of national life. Their living conditions fall far below the accepted standards and there remains a wide gap between them and rest of the society. Social inequality has remained the chief characteristic of Indian society. Scheduled Tribes form the lowest rung of the social and economic ladder and are educationally the most backward section of our country. The exploitation process can be checked only with the help of a good dose of educational awareness, which alone can build an inner strength in them. Introduction 2 Education is a powerful instrument for individuals to achieve upward social and economic mobility and achieve power and status in the society. It is a source of equality, mobility and empowerment both at the individual and at the societal. The socio-economic growth of a country depends, to a large extent, on the rate of literacy and the availability of skilled and educated man power. Education can be conceived as the panacea of all social ills and evils. No programmes for social improvement can be planned and implemented successfully unless the people are educated. The uplift of depressed classes is a must for the establishment of a welfare state. Among the depressed classes tribal population is the most backward. There are about 35 tribal communities in Kerala. The Scheduled tribes population of the state is 3.64 lakhs according to 2001 census and this constitutes 1.14 per cent of the total population of the state. With the attainment of independence both the Government and leaders were conscious of the need for the welfare of tribes. Tracing the historical back ground of the term scheduled tribe as used in the constitution, it may be stated that during the debates in the Constitution Assembly, Shri.Jaipal singh had favoured the use of the term Adivasi, instead of 'Scheduled Tribe'. It was not accepted. The reason for this is explained by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar, Chairman, drafting committee of the constitution as "the word 'Adivasi' is really a general Introduction 3 term which has no specific legal dejure connotation" whereas, the word 'Scheduled Tribe' has a fixed meaning, because it enumerates the Tribes. I n the event of the matter being taken to a court of law, there should be a precise definition as to who these adivasis are. It was therefore, decided to enumerate the adivasis under the term to be called 'Scheduled Tribes'. The importance of education has been duly recognized by Indian Constitution. And many provisions have been included in the constitution. Under article 246 in Schedule V11 entries 63, 64, 65 and 66 of list I (the Union list) and entry 25 of list I11 (the Concurrent list) shows the importance given for education under the constitution. Article 45 makes provision for free and compulsory education for children until they complete the age of fourteen years. Right to education has been granted by the 86th Constitutional Amendment carried out in 2002. The Amendment stipulates that the "government shall provide free and compulsory education to all children from the age of 6 to 14 in such a manner as the State may by law determine". The act also enjoins upon the parents to send their children to school by including it as a fundamental duty under Article 51A. Further, it enjoins on the State to endeavor to provide early childhood care and education to all children until they complete six years of age. It may be noted that if a child is denied this right he can take the state to court. Introduction 4 Article 46 of the constitution states - 'The state shall promote with special care for the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes and shall protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitations". I n addition to the safeguards provided by Article 46, Article 15(4) and 16(4) also contribute to the realization of equality by removing inequality, social and educational, suffered by the Scheduled Tribes for centuries. Article 339 also empowers union government to give directions to state government for drawing up or executing schemes considered essential for the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes. The article reads as 'Control of the Union over the administration of Scheduled areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes". I n addition to this constitutional safeguards and provisions to ameliorate the social, educational and economical conditions of scheduled tribes various educational schemes and programmes have been launched by the government of India since independence. Nothing but education can bring an over all change in tribes in order to give them scope to cope up with the civilized citizens of the country. Kothari Commission (1964-66) has remarked that 'One of the important social objectives of education is to equalize opportunity, enabling the backward and under privileged class and individuals to use education as a lever for improvement of their conditions. Every society that values justice and is anxious to Introduction 5 improve the lot of common man and cultivate all available tale*, 4 must ensure progressive equality of opportunity to all sections of the population. Thus, i t is the only guarantee for the building up of an egalitarian and humane society in which the exploitation of the weak will be minimized". The educational development of the scheduled Tribes is one of the priorities of the government. But they have remained socially, economically and educationally backward due to prolonged suppression and deprivation. Even now the tribes continue to remain in the lowest strata of the society. Tribal development is essentially a national problem and it demands many positive measures for the uplift of the tribal masses. Need and importance of the study Both the central government and the state government and also a few voluntary agencies have dedicated themselves for the cause of the education of the tribes. All the possible measures are taken and all kinds of incentives are offered for the popularization of education among the tribes but they still remain educationally backward. Though i t cannot be denied that the tribes are gradually picking up in the area of education, whether the speed of their progress in this regard is to the desired extent is a moot point. As a teacher the present investigator had the occasion to teach in the tribal belts of Kerala. It was observed during her experience Introduction 6 that the tribal pupils do have many inhibitive constraints with regard to their education. That in spite of the strenuous efforts from the part of the government and other agencies, education of the tribal population is far below the accepted norms bears ample evidence for this. And also various Committees and Commissions appointed by the governments have reported that Scheduled Tribes are educationally the most backward section of the society. I n this connection many relevant questions spontaneously emerge. What is the enrolment status of the tribal pupils in schools? What constraints do they face in their education? What are the educational incentives offered to them? What is the attitude of parents towards the education of tribal pupils? Do they get additional help from the teaching community? I s the academic achievement of the tribal pupils at par with others? How do the socio-economic factors of the tribes interfere with their education? How can the existing constraints be overcome? These and many such questions will find reliable answer only through systematic research. Systematic and scientific studies are essential to find out the constraints in tribal education to suggest measures that can accelerate the induction of tribes into the formal education system. Though the education system among the tribes has not attained a status at par with the rest of the population the constraints have been rarely studied empirically. A good amount of work has been done on Introduction 7 different aspects of the education of Scheduled Tribes. It has got much relevance in identifying the educational constraints of the tribes. Only through systematic, scientific and sincere investigation alone can the constraints and the impediments in the popularization of education among them be identified. The present study is a humble attempt in this direction. Statement of the Problem The present study is entitled 'CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA". Definition of Terms (i) Constraints I n the present study by constraint is meant the impediments and limitations faced by the tribal pupils. (ii) Education I n this present study by education is meant the formal system of education. (iii) Tribe The term tribe is used to mean all the Scheduled Tribes notified by the Government of Kerala. (iv) Pupils The children studying in schools from standard to I to X are termed as pupils. (v) Kerala Kerala is the state situated in the south west corner of Indian Republic. The boundaries of the state are Arabian sea in the west, Introduction 8 Karnataka state in the North, Tamil Nadu state in the East and South. The area of the state in 38,863 Sq-Kms Objectives of the Study. General Objective: The general objective of the study is to identify the constraints in the education of the scheduled tribe pupils of Kerala. Specific objectives: The specific objectives of the study are the following l. To find out the enrolment of tribal pupils from primary school level to secondary school level (Std I to X). 2. To identify the socio-economic factors act as constraints in the education of the tribal pupils. 3. To find out whether the inadequacies of incentives act as constraints in the education of the tribal pupils. 4. To identify whether the parental attitude act as constraints in the education of tribal pupils. 5. To identify the additional help, if any, received by the tribal pupils from teachers. 6. To identify the academic constraints in the education of the tribal pupils. 7. To identify the inadequate school facilities act as constraints in the education of tribal pupils. , 8. To offer suggestions to minimize the educational constraints of tribal pupils. Introduction 9 Scope and Limitations of the Study The present study is mainly intended to identify the educational constraints of the tribal pupils. The inferences arrived from the present study along with the recommendations are expected to go a long way in the restructuring of the education of the tribal pupils in the state. The findings of the study will also help the practicing teachers in handling tribal pupils more effectively. Any how, the study is not free from limitations. The ideal method to study any problems concerned with the tribes is participant observation. Because of the time limit participant observation was limited only as a supplemetitary method in this study and it was confined to identify the socio-economic problems, attitude of tribal parents towards education and study habits of tribal pupils. The study, leans heavily on questionnaires and interview schedules for the collection of data. Though these limitations of the tools are likely to affect the findings of the study, all precautionary measures were taken by the investigator to make the collection of data, interpretations and conclusions as objective as possible. The pupil's response was collected from secondary schools only, since pupils below secondary school level were considered as incapable of giving well organized written response related to educational constraints. The 35 tribal communities scheduled by the Government of Kerala have almost separate customs, conventions and problems. Introduction 10 Their social, educational and financial statuses also vary strikingly. Hence to arrive at universal conclusions equally applicable to all the tribes may be difficult. The study is confined to four major revenue districts with tribal concentrations viz. Wayanad, Palakkad, Idukki and Thiruvananthauram. Covering all the districts and total population would have made the study more reliable. A few tribes are reported to be living in the dense interior forests of Kerala. They are reported to be quite inhibitive in coming to the limelight. They are beyond the scope of the study. Any how, the present investigator was well cognizant of these limitations and hence took all precautionary measures to minimize the impact of these limitations and has made the study as objective as possible. Methodology in brief The present study is mainly intended to identify the educational constraints of the tribal pupils. Hence survey method was mainly selected for the study. The scheduled tribe pupils from four revenue districts of Kerala viz. Wayanad, Palakkad, Idukkiand and Thiruvananthapuram was used in the study. This ensures representation to North Kerala, Central Kerala and South Kerala. 1500 tribal pupils, 500 teachers, 150 tribal parents, 25 social workers and 25 educational experts formed the sample of the study. I n order Introduction 11 to collect relevant data about constraints in the education of tribal pupils, the investigator developed the following tools. l. Questionnaire to scheduled tribe pupils of secondary schools 2. Questionnaire to Teachers in schools 3. Questionnaire to scheduled tribe parents. 4. Interview schedule for social workers. 5. Interview scheduled for educational experts. Participant observation was also used as a supplementary technique in this study to verify and reinforce the data supplied by the respondents. The data obtained through various tools were analysed using the statistical technique of percentage analysis. The study has also made use of the records available with the Scheduled Tribes Development Department, Directorate of Public Instruction, State Planning Commission, Bureau of Economic and Statistics, Reports of Committees and Commissions and Educational Survey Reports. Organization of Research Report. The thesis is presented in six chapters. The first chapter gives a short introduction, need and importance of the study, statement of the problems, definition of terms, objectives of the study, scope and limitations, methodology in brief and organization of Research Report. Introduction 12 I n the second chapter a short general description of the tribes in Kerala is given. The third chapter provides a Review of the related literature. The fourth chapter provides a detailed account of the Methodology. The fifth chapter is dedicated for the analysis of the data collected. I n the sixth chapter the inferences of the study along with corresponding recommendations are provided. CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 CHAPTER I1 TRIBES I N RERALA O Distribution of tribes in Kerala. +:+ Occupation +:+ Social organization +"+ Literacy of the scheduled tribes +:+ Educational incentives TRIBES IN KERALA I n this chapter the tribal situation in Kerala with special reference to their education is presented. Distribution of tribes in Kerala ,. According to 2001 census the scheduled tribe population of Kerala is 3.64 lakhs, which constitutes 1.14 per cent of the total population and is unevenly distributed in the districts. Wayanad has the highest tribal concentration in the State (17.43 per cent). More than 37 per cent of the Scheduled Tribes are concentrated in Wayanad District. Idukki account for 14 per cent. The lowest proportion of tribal population is in Alappuzha District (0.15 per cent). The population of Scheduled Tribes has slightly increased in 2001 compared to 1991 census (1.10 per cent) Kasargod and Palakkad together constitute more than 19 per cent of the scheduled tribes in the State. Scheduled tribe population is steadily increasing from 1981 Census onwards, though their growth-rate has declined from 22.75 per cent in 1991 to 13.47 percent in 2001. The district wise distribution of Scheduled Tribes population is presented in Table 2.1. Tribes in Kerala 14 TABLE 2.1 District-wise distribution of tribes folk in Kerala (in Lakh) is given below. The list of Scheduled Tribes in Kerala was revised on the basis of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes orders (Amendment) Act, 1976. This revised list was adopted in 1981, 1991 and 2001 Census. I n the State 35 communities are included in the list of Scheduled Tribes. The list of Scheduled tribes in Kerala is given below. Districts Trivandrum Kollam Pathanamthitta Alappuzha Kotta yam ldukki Eranakulam Thrissur Palakkad Malappuram Kozhikode Wayanad Kannur Kasargod Total 1. Adiyan 2. Arandan 3. Eravallan 1971 0.11 0.14 - 0.01 0.1 1 0.23 0.01 0.25 0.09 0.85 - 0.90 - 2.69 1981 0.14 0.07 - 0.03 0.15 0.39 0.03 0.03 0.29 0.08 0.08 0.96 0.40 2.61 Percentage of District ST population to total State population 0.55 0.16 0.58 0.14 0.98 4.66 0.18 0.15 1.49 0.34 0.21 17.11 0.81 2.73 1.10 1991 0.16 0.04 0.07 0.03 0.18 0.50 0.05 0.04 0.35 0.11 0.04 1.15 0.18 0.29 3.20 2001 0.65 0.20 0.53 0.15 0.94 4.51 0.32 0.16 1.52 0.34 0.21 7.43 0.83 2.52 1.14 Tribes in Kerala 15 4. Hill Pulaya 5. Irular, Irulan 6. Kadar 7. Kammara ( In the areas comprising the Malabar district as specified by sub section (2) of section 5 of State Reorganization Act 1956 (37 of 1956). 8. Kanikkaran, Kanikkar 9. Kattunayakan 10. Kochuvelan 11. Konda Kapur 12. Kondareddis 13. Koraga 14. Kota 15. Kudiya, Melakudi 16. Kurichiyan 17. Kurumans 18. Kurumbas 19. Maha Malasar 20. Malai Arayan 21. Malai Pandaram 22. Malai Vedan 23. Malakkuravan 24. Malasar 25. Malayan (excluding the areas comprising the Malabar district as specified by sub section (2) of section 5 of the State Reorganization Act, 1956 (37 of 1956). Tribes in Kerala 1 6 26. Malayarayar 27. Mannan 28. Marati (in Hosdureg and Kasaragod taluks of Cannore district) 29. Muthuvan, Mudugar, Muduvan 30. Pallayan 31. Palliyan 32. Palliyar 33. Paniyan 34. Ulladan 35. Uraly. But in 2003 by government order No: 5389/G1/2003/SCSTDDl Dated 23-03-2003 the Maraties were deleted from this list and two other tribes Mavilan, Karimpalan included. Thus at present there are 36 approved tribal communities in Kerala. As the Scheduled Tribes are the first settlers of this country their physical feature, technology, art, religious lore and concepts seem to point to real historical relationship between the tribes of Kerala and Negritos of Malaysia (LA. Krishna Iyer, 1961). They are known in different names as 'Adivasies', 'Kattujathi' or 'Kattukurman', 'Vanavasi', 'Girijans', 'Forest dwellers' etc. The tribal communities living in different regions in the state may be classified into seven major territorial groups taking into account their historical, ethnic and socio-cultural relations. Tribes in Kerala 17 (P.R.G.Mathur, 1977). They are Kazaragod, Wayanad, Attappady, Nilambur, Parambikulam, Idukki and Thiruvananthapuram. The most important tribal communities living in Kasaragod region are the Koragas and Maratis. They are mainly engaged in basketry. The prasent Wayanad district was carved out from the North Wayanad of Kannur district and South Wayanad of Kozhikode district. The main tribal communities of this district are the Paniyans, Kurichian, Uraly, Kattunayakans, etc. Attappady is one of the important forest region of the state. This valley is situated in the Mannarghat Taluk of Palakkad district. Irulars, Mudugars and the Kurumbas are the three main Tribal Communities living in this region. Nilambur zone is situated in the Mangeri taluk of Malappuram District. The important tribal communities living in this region are the paniyans, Arandans, and Kurumans. Parambikulam region is located in the Chittur Taluk of Palakkad district. The important tribal living in this region is the Kadars of Cochin (Ehrenfels, 1952). Idukki comprises of the taluks of Pirmad, Udumbanchola, Devikulam, and Thodupuzha. Uralis, Muthuvans, Mannans, Mala Arayans and Mala Ulludans are the major tribal communities living in this region. Nedumangad and Neyyattinkara taluks of the Thiruvananthapuram district constitute the Thiruvananthapuram tribal Tribes in Kerala 1 8 region. Kanikkar of Travancore is the most important tribal community living in this region. Of the 35 tribal communities in the state, the numerically largest are paniyans, Kurichians, Kurumans, Maratis, Kanikarans and Irulars. Details regarding the habitat of different tribes are given in Table.2.2 some of the tribals are grouped together and therefore their number is only 33 in the Table 2.2. Tribes in Kerala 1 9 TABLE 2.2 Details regarding the Habitat of different Tribes in Kerala SI.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6 . 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 1 22. 1 Koraga 1 Cannore Name of Tribe Paniyan Marati Malayarayar Kurumans Kurichian Irulan, Irular Kanikaran or Kanikkar 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Habitation Cannore and Kozhikode Cannore Kottayam and Ernakulam Cannore and Kozhikode Cannore and Kozhikode Palakkad Thhvananthapuram and Kollam Adiyan Muthuvan, Mudugar or Muduvan Kattunayakan Mannan Cannore and Kozhiiode Kottayam and Palakkad Kozhikode and Cannore Kottayam, Ernakulam, Alappuzha, Thiruvananthapuram, Ullandan (Hill dwellers) Hill Pulaya Urlay Malayan Malai Arayan Palleyan Kurumbas Kadar Malai Pandaram Malai Vedan 23. 24. 25. I I 29. I Kochuvelan I Kottayam, Alappuzh and Kollam Thrichur and Kollam Kottayam, Quilon, Ernakulam and Thrichur Palakkad, Trichur and Kottayam Ernakulam, Kollam and Kozhikode Palakkad, Trichur and Kottayam Kottayam, Kollam, Alappuzha and Ernakulam Kottayam and Thiruvananthapuram Palakkad, Kozhikode and Cannore Palakkad, Kozhikode and Cannore Kollam, Thiivananthapurarn, Ernakulam and Alappuzha Kollam, Thiruvananthapuam, Ernakulam and Alappuzha 27. 28. Eravallan Karnmara Malakuravan Palakkad, Kottayam and Ernakulam Cannore, Kozhikode and Palakkad Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Trichur, Kottayam, Alappuzha Kudiya, Malakudi Malasar 30. 3 1. 32. 33. Cannore Cannore, Kozhikode and Palakkad Source : Tribal sub plan of Kerala State, State Planning Board, Thiruvananthapuram Arandan Palliyan Kondareddis Kota Kozhikode and Cannore Kozhikode, Cannore and Palakkad Palakkad and Cannore Kozhiiode Tribes in KeraIa 20 The tribal communities with pre-agricultural stage of development and very low literacy rate are recognized as primitive tribes by Government of India. Five communities, viz., Cholonaikan, Kattunaikan, Kurumba, Kadar and Koraga are declared as primitive tribal groups and they constitute nearly 4.8 per cent of the Scheduled Tribe population in the state. They still practice customs and conventions that are unknown to the larger society. According to a survey by the Forest Department (in 1992), 17, 156 Scheduled Tribe families are living in the interior forests in 671 settlements. Majority of them are engaged in the collection of minor forests produces and forest protection works. The cholanaikans, the cavemen of Kerala, Partly live in caves particularly during the monsoon. Various schemes are being implemented for the development of primitive tribes. The Special Central Assistance funds released by Government of India separately for primitive tribes are fully utilized for their development programme. Special component plans and Tribal sub plans are intended to provide special protective measurers to safeguard the interests of Scheduled Tribes and promote their educational and economic progress. Though even after about five decades of development efforts the Scheduled Tribes continue to constitute relatively most backward and vulnerable section of the population with extremely weak economic base. Table 2.3 indicates the financial and physical achievements of Primitive Tribes under Special Central Assistance Scheme. TABLE 2.3 Development of Primitive Tribes - Financial and Physical Achievements During Annual Plan 1991-92,1992-93,1993-94,1995-96 and 1996-97 (Special Central Assistance Scheme) S1. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Tribe Cholanaickans Kurumbas Kadars Kattunaickans Koragas ~4 a: M o\ 2 I 3 8 2 W 3.05 2.00 1.00 9.14 0.78 m k g , OS3 0':s Z g s 19 13 28 128 23 m CI' P4 o\ z 3 3 C, 2 W 2.50 4.00 0.96 13.02 2.5 C I O O 0 = 3 d g s Z a s 96 121 7 29.7 25 e a: m 0\ 2 m 7' ZK 2 g B 3 C, 2 W 0.66 5.55 4.20 8.30 1.13 g d E c Z s g 6 62 54 118 212 \O =? m 0\ 2 b a: \O m 5 0.98 5.48 2.45 11.85 3.00 12 80 38 151 260 - - 1.00 19.64 2.77 - - 22 205 306 - - 13 15.47 2.5 - 14 255 248 Tribes in Kerala 22 Occupation Agriculture labour is the main occupation among Scheduled Tribes. Agriculture sector provides them with the main means of livelihood. Among the tribes agricultural labourers constitute 55.47 per cent. Employment among Scheduled Tribes in the organized sector is relatively low. Work participation rate among the Scheduled Tribes is 46.04 per cent as against state overage of 31.43 per cent. Main reason for the higher participation of Scheduled Tribes women. While the average participation of women in the State is 15.85 per cent, the rate for Scheduled Tribes women is 36.90 per cent. Details regarding the tribal workers in Kerala is presented in Table 2.4 TABLE 2.4 Distribution of Scheduled Tribe Workers in Kerala Tribes in Kerala 23 The tribes in Kerala do not stick on to any one particular occupation alone. They usually change their occupation from one to another depending upon the availability of jobs, climatic conditions and variations in seasons. Farm operations and related activities constitute the main traditional occupation of all tribes. Next to agriculture, collection of hill produce is the important occupation of tribes in the State. The tribes have the monopoly in the collection of minor forest produces. Food gathering, hunting and fishing supplement their income. Majority of the tribal communities practice shifting cultivation. "their day starts and ends with the battle for food and they seldom find time to earn for their essential needs" (A.A.D. Luiz, 1962). 'As a result of large scale influx of plains people especially from central Travancore, the tribal population of Wayanad, has been reduced to a minority (PRG Mathur, 1977). Most of the tribal agricultural labourers, particularly in the southern districts, have been victims of tribal land alienation, caused by outright cheating. A tribal is a born borrower. His ignorance is exploited by many who come into contact with him, 'Hardworking, god fearing, honest and humble theirs is a society ridden with superstition and ignorance which makes them vulnerable and extremely backward (G.S. Deoganger, 1979). The occupational pattern of the Scheduled Tribes would reveal their relative economic backwardness. Most of Tribes in Kerala 24 the tribals are agricultural labourers, still they face poverty. Tribal families with annual family income below Rs. 11,000/- are considered to be below poverty line. A survey conducted by the Rural Development Department in 1992 shows the number of Tribal families living below poverty line. TABLE 2.5 Number of Tribal families living below poverty line - 1992 SI.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Source : Tribal Sub Plan, Directorate of Scheduled Tribes Development, Thiruvananthapuram District Thiruvananthauram Kollam Pathanarnthitta Alappuzha Kottayam Idukki Ernakulam Thrissur Malappuram Palakkad Wayanad Kozhikode Kannur Kasaragode Total No' of Schedule Tribe Families 4059 925 1647 65 1 3999 11561 1212 967 2363 8610 23287 1215 3635 5355 6944 1 Number of Scheduled Tribe Families below poverty line 2161 95 722 47 749 6422 118 430 1247 4571 14063 288 196 2555 3 3 664 Poverty Rate (%l 53.23 10.27 43.83 7.2 1 18.72 55.76 9.73 44.46 52.77 53.08 60.38 23.70 5.39 47.71 48.47% Tribes in Kerala 25 Social Organization Almost all tribal groups have their own administrative Heads (Moopan). Moopan is assisted by Kuruthalai (Peon) and Bandari (Cashier). I n certain tribal communities the same person will act as both priest and administrative head. While selecting tribal chief, both matrilineal and patrilineal systems are followed. 'But now due to the influence of people from country parts, with whom the tribals have come into contact, the tribal chief has lost his special power and privileges and he acts as their guide only in religious and social matters" (Tribal Sub plan of Kerala, State Planning Board). The Moopan presides over all the socio-cultural and religious ceremonies. He is expected to tackle all the common problems such as problems related to adultery, divorce, dispute over property, theft etc. Arason are the headman of Kurumbas. I n the past the headman had an assistant known as Varijin and an executive officer known as Kolkaran. The Chapli (priest) is an important person at funeral and marriage ceremonies. Another popular personality among the tribes of each settlement is the Mannukaran (Knower of the soil). During agricultural seasons, Mannukaran is the first to sow the seeds, and he performs certain offerings to the Karai Daivam, for a successful crop yield. Tribes in Kerala 26 Most of the tribes are animists. They believe in ghosts and spirits and make periodical offerings. Due to the contact with the plains many tribes have changed their religious belief. "Most of the tribals in Kerala are either fully or partially assimilated into the Hindu fold. A few other remain outside of either because they are converted to other religions or because they do not regularly interact with the Hindus due to various reasons" (L.A.Krishna Iyer, 1973). Literacy of the scheduled tribes It was only after independence many new programmes for the uplift of the backward classes is general and Scheduled Tribes in particular were launched. Article 46 of the Indian Constitution States that, ' the state shall provide special care of the educational and economic interests of the weaker sections of the people". The Report of the Education Commission (1964-66) categorically states, "the education of the backward classes in general and of the tribals in particular is a major programme of equalization and national integration. No expenditure is too great for the purpose. The third five year plan in its introduction to the section on education has rightly stated, "Education is the most single factor in achieving rapid economic development and technological process in creating a social order founded on values of freedom, social justice, equal opportunity. Kerala state had introduced several tribal educational programmes right from the inception of Development Plans. Still, Tribes in Kerala 27 tribal literacy is the lowest in Kerala when compared to the other sections of the population. According to 1991 census, Kerala achieved the highest literacy rate of 89.81 percent among the states in India as against the all India average of 52.21 percent. The achievement of Kerala in the literacy level of various categories is presented in Table 2.6. TABLE 2.6 Rank of Kerala in literacy I S1.No. I Aspects of Literacy Literacy Rate I Rank I I I 1 . I Total Literacy Rate I 89.81 I I I I I I 4. 1 Literacy Rate of Scheduled Castes 79.66 I 1 I 2. I 3. / Female Literacy Rate I I I I 5. 1 Literacy Rate of Scheduled Tribes 57.22 V 1 86.17 I I I I I Source : Census of India, 1991 Male Literacy Rate I The table above clearly shows that Kerala has achieved envious position with regard to various aspects of literacy. But, with respect 93.62 to tribal literacy, Kerala has only fifth position. This is a point to be I taken into account seriously. The Literacy rage of tribals during 1991 census was 57.22%. Tribal literacy rate is high in the districts, Kottayam, Ernakulam, Alappuzha and Pathanamthitta (above 70%) Whereas, in Palakkad (34.87%), Malappuram (43.93%), Wayanad (50.63%), Thrissur (51.40%) and Kozhikode (52.35%) it is relatively low. Except for Kasargod, Wayanad, Malappuram, Palakkad, Idukki and Tribes in Kerala 28 Thiruvananthapuram all the other districts cross the state average. District wise literacy rates of Scheduled Tribes is presented in Table 2.7. TABLE 2.7 District wise literacy rates of Scheduled Tribes in Kerala l. I Thiruvananthauram 1 42.17 1 58.06 1 74.00 SI.No. I I I I 2. I Kollam 1 32.59 1 50.30 1 62.42 District 1 1971 / 1981 1 1991 I I I I I 6. I Idukki 1 45.12 1 52.60 1 76.96 3. ( Pathanamthitta 4. 5. I 8. l Thrissur 1 25.06 1 29.90 1 51.40 - - Alappuzha Kottayam I I I I 9. I Palakkad 17.13 112.04 134.87 1 - 1 73.21 7. I Ernakulam 10. 1 Malappuram 1 13.67 1 16.33 143.93 ( 60.23 38.44 - - 143.35 1 62.78 I I I I l l. 1 Kozhikode 1 23.24 1 14.33 1 52.36 53.71 73.63 74.48 88.69 l I I 12. I Wayanad I I I I l Total 1 25.52 1 31.79 1 57.22 l - - 143.24 1 50.63 13. 14. I Kasaragode l I I I Source : Census of India, Series - 10, Kerala, Paper - 3 of 1971,1981, 1991 Final population Total. Kannur 1 25.52 1 33.18 1 58.61 Education is the most important instrument for human resource m - development. Education of women therefore, occupies top priority 1 66.38 among various measures taken to improve the status of women in the society. Recognizing the need for a literate population and provision of elementary education as a crucial input for nation building, provision was made under the Article 45 of the constitution Tribes in Kerala 29 for Universal, free and compulsory education up to the age of 14 years. Article 14 of the constitution of India confers equal rights and opportunities to men and women in the political, economical and social spheres. Article 15 prohibits discrimination on grounds of race, religion, caste, sex etc., and Article 15 (3) enables the state to allow the grant of special privileges in favour of women and children by law. Article 16 guarantees equality of opportunities in public employment. Gender equity and gender equality are thus sought to be encouraged. Emancipation of women is an essential prerequisite for economic development and social progress of the nation. Education is the only weapon which can emancipate and empower them. But even after 50 years of independence and many legislative measures adopted by Government, women continue to suffer disabilities and humiliations. The literacy rate of women and men in the period 1941 to 2001 shows that growth rate of women has been quite fast. The literacy has increased by over two times (29.90 per cent in 1941 to 63.86 per cent in 1991) in case of men, but over five times (7.30 percent in 1941 to 39.42 per cent in 1991) in case of women. But another important fact is that a gap of over 20 per cent (22.60 per cent in 1941 and 24.44 per cent in 1991) between the literacy of men and women has continued to percent in all through the period 1941 to 1991. Details regarding the literacy rate of women and men in India during the period 1941 to 1991 is presented in Table 2.8. Tribes in Kerala 30 TABLE 2.8 Literacy rates in India 1941-1991 (MaleJFemale) Year The literacy rate of women belonging to all social categories 1991 and castes has slowly increased as shown in Table 9. But it is clearly Persons evident that the gap in literacy rate between women belonging to Male I Female Source : Chandrasekharan, Educational Planning and Management 1994. 52.1 1 higher and lower castes and categories has continued to exist. Table.2.9 shows the literacy rate of women belonging to different 63.86 categories. 39.42 Tribes, -1 986-87, drawn Table Nos. 1 and 4 Chapter IV. TABLE 2.9 Growth Rates in Women's Literacy (STIGeneral) S1. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Source: 28th Report of the Commissioner for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Category General Scheduled Tribes (Total Scheduled Tribes (Women) All communities excluding SCs and Scheduled Tribes (Total) All communities excluding Scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes (Women) Literacy Rates (in per cent) 1961 24.00 8.84 -- 27.9 -- Growth Rates 1961- 71 22.72 32.26 -- 21.00 -- 1971 29.44 11.29 4.85 33.80 22.43 1971- 8 1 23.02 44.82 65.72 22.19 32.27 1981 36.23 16.35 8.04 41.30 29.43 Tribes in Kerala 3 1 Female literacy is lower than male literacy both at the national and state level. But, Kerala stands out in the case of female literacy and tribal literacy when compared to other states. Kerala has a tribal literacy rate of 51.07 percent and general literacy rate of 86.17 per cent compared to the national average of 18.19 and 39.29 respectively. The sex-wise and community-wise literacy rates of different social groups in Kerala is given in Table 2.10. TABLE 2.10 Sex-wise and Community-wise Literacy Rates-1991 One ayurveda hospital 17 ayurveda dispensaries, 5 primary S1.No. 1. 2. 3. 4. health centres and two mobile medical units are functioning for providing better medical facilities to Scheduled Tribes. The Category General Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribes Source : Census of India, Series 10. Kerala Paper - 3 of 1971, Final Population Totals All India Mananthavady Health Project is one of the projects under modern medicine established for scheduled Tribes. Periodical medical camps Male 93.62 85.22 63.88 64.13 in tribal areas are conducted by Health Service Department to diagnose diseases and provide free medicine to them. Institutions Female 86.17 74.3 1 5 1.07 39.29 functioning under Scheduled Tribe Development Department are Total 89.81 76.66 57.22 52.5 1 shown in Table 2.11. Tribes in Kerala 32 TABLE 2. l l Institutions functioning under Scheduled Tribes Development Department in Kerala S1.No. I Name of Institutions 2. 1 Pre-matric hostels 1 115(82forboys I Number I I l . 3. Kindergartens 4. 1 Productivity Training Centres 1 6. 1 Ayurvedic dispensaries I 17 I 73 Vocational Training Centres 2 I I 33 for girls) 25 5. I I Allopathic Hospital 7. 1 Allopathic dispensaries I I 1 3 8. 1 Midwifery Centres I I 5 9. 1 Mobile Medical Units I I 2 10. 1 Model Residential School 1 1 . 12. Educational incentives Educational incentives, scholarships and other kinds of 2 I assistance from pre-primary to post graduate level are given to tribal Ashram School Mobile employment Exchange 1 3. pupils. They are given full fee concessions including exemption from payment of all kinds of fees. Income limit is not fixed in providing scholarships and stipends to scheduled tribe pupils. All the scheduled p- 2 2 tribe pupils are eligible for scholarships/stipend/lump sum grant. The Source : Tribal Sub Plan, Annual Plan 1999-2000 Vocational Training Institute rates of lump sum grant and stipend given to scheduled tribe pupils in pre-matric studies given are presented in Table 2.12. l Tribes in Kerala 33 TABLE 2.12 Aid for pre-metric pupils Standard I Annual Lump I Monthly stipend I Nursery classes I I I I I I Source: Directorate of Scheduled Tribe Development, Govt. of Kerala, Thiruvananthapuram. sum grant (Rs) 65 Primary section Upper primary section High school section The tribal pupils who failed in any class will be given only half (Rs.) Nil of the rate mentioned above for continuing their education. 95 125 220 To ensure proper and regular attendance of tribal pupils in 3 5 40 45 primary schools, the parents are granted incentives of Rs.101- per month per student. Financial assistance is also given to S.S.L.C failed students for their studies in tutorials to reappear for the examinations. The tribal pupils who attain 45% and above marks in the annual examination of standard VII, V111 and IX are given Rs. 501- each as complimentary incentives. And also the pupils who pass S.S.L.C examinations with 45% of marks and above are given Rs. 2001- each. Those who attain first class in S.S.L.C examination are provided with cash award of Rs. 25001- Complimentary incentives are also given to first and second place winners of district and state level school sports competitions. Merit scholarship is given to two scheduled tribe boys and two scheduled tribe girls in standard V and VIII. The main objective of Tribes in Kerala 34 the scholarship is to motivate scheduled tribe pupils in learning. The scholarship is given only to those tribal pupils who secure more than 45% marks in aggregate in the annual examination of the previous standards ie, standard IV in the case of upper primary scholarships and standard V11 in the ease of high school scholarships. The amount of upper primary scholarship is Rs 401- per annum in each of the standards V, V1 and VII. The amount of high school scholarship is Rs 601- per annum in each of the standard VIII, IX and X. To improve the standard of scheduled tribe pupils and to achieve better results in the S.S.L.C examination, the Department of Education has introduced 'Special Coaching Scheme' from 1989-90 on words. Coaching classes are conducted for Scheduled Tribe pupils in standard X. The special coaching classes start three months prior to the commencement of S.S.L.C examination. The special classes are arranged out of the school hours either in the morning or evening on all working days according to the convenience of the pupils and teachers. For the exclusive benefit of Scheduled Tribe pupils various educational institutions are run by the Scheduled Tribe development Department. To provide better educational facilities and high standard of education 18 model residential ashram schools (for primitive tribes) have been functioning during 2004-05. 'Better Education facilities to brilliant student's is another scheme, the Tribes in Kerala 35 objective of which is to impart high standard of education for brilliant students from standard V onwards by admitting them in well known public schools. The expenses covering fees, boarding charges, special tuition, uniform etc., are being given to the pupils till they complete S.S.L.C or plus two courses. I n addition to the government pre-metric hostels, subsidised pre-matric hostels are functioning for Scheduled Tribe pupils. They are run by the non-governmental organizations and are approved by the Department of Scheduled Tribe Development Thus a view of the tribal situation would reveal their typically poor socio-economic and educational status. It is worth noting that in spite of the strenuous efforts made by government and other agencies they are yet to reach the take off stage. CONSTRAINTS IN THE EDUCATION OF THE TRIBAL PUPILS OF KERALA Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 CHAPTER- I11 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE O Studies in India +:+ Studies in Kerala REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE The review of related studies implies 'locating, reading and evaluating reports as well as reports of casual observation and opinion that are related to individual's planned research project". (J.C.Aggarwal; 1966) A survey of related studies provides the investigator with an understanding of the work that has already been done in the field of enquiry. It also suggests the ways and means for the collection of relevant data and interpretation of test results. The studies reviewed are mainly on educational problems of the tribes. The available literature on the present research work has been reviewed and presented under two heads viz., 1) Studies in India (2) Studies in Kerala. 1. STUDIES IN INDIA The first contribution to the study of educational problems of Scheduled Tribes in India was made as early as 1944 by Furer-Hai Mendorfl. The author has described the outline of educational schemes he had drawn up for the Gonds of Adilabad district in the Nizam's domination of Hyderabad. The study revealed the problems of language script and teachers. The schemes paid rich dividends for the tribes of that area and even now forms the basis of educational planning there. The author pointed out that an educational 4 Review of Related Literature 37 programme for the tribes had to be in consonance with their habit, economy and culture. T.C.Das (1950)~ studied the H 0 tribe and arrived at the significant conclusion that the H 0 students could compete successfully with their non-tribal colleagues. The study however conceded that the students were receptive, but not critical, lacked confidence but were eager to learn. The same author (1962)~ in another field study, survey the cultural changes among the tribes of Janusar Bewar and also dealt with the concepts and methods of education prevailing among the population of the Himalayan region. While enumerating the principles on which the teaching of aboriginal has to be based, Naik (1950)~ analysed the existing techniques of teaching the Bhils and other tribes. He pointed out their defects and suggested recommendations for the improvement of their teaching techniques. I n another study on Bills of Madhya Pradesh with regard to their position of literacy and education, Naik (1956)~ concluded that 'Basic Education is the ideal system of Education for the Bhils'. The same author (1969)~ studied the Bhils to find out the impact of education upon them. Naik established that the changes observed were only shallow and not deep. Madan (1952)~ wanted educational activities to be carried on along with economic uplift in such areas as in contact with urban centres. The study revealed that education, and literacy were a very Review of Related Literature 38 potent medium of instruction, propaganda and indoctrination was essential. The Tribal Affairs Conference (1954)~ organized by the Government of India brought out a report in which the welfare schemes including education of the tribes,. in different State Governments were described. Problems related to script, medium of instruction dialect, etc. are cited. Conference recommended vocational education, and suggested grant to non-official agencies, planned tours for pupils and choice of right type of teachers. The type of education to be given to tribals and the problems in imparting vocationally based education are discussed by Biswas (1954)'. I n another paper (1955)1° emphasizing the need for Tribal Education, the same author suggested the introduction of Basic Education. Kar (1957)" pleaded for a psychological approach to tribal education. He described the various steps through which tribal pupils were trained and the methods, content and the agencies of tribal education. He suggested that the educative value of the traditional dormitories of the tribes should also be taken into consideration. Elvin (1959)12 in his book titled 'A New Deal For Tribal India' suggested that the school should become as much a tribal institution as dormitory. He has discussed education and economics of the tribal Review of Related Literature 39 school programmes, type of school equipments, school buildings, learning environments, medium of instruction, education for tribal girls and technical education. Narrating the interrelation between Anthropology and Education, Basu (1961)13 strongly criticized the present system of educating the Adivasi population of India. Giving suggestions for an educational scheme for them with regard to books, medium of instruction, collection of vocabularies and building for schools, the writer held the view that the education of the aboriginals should be subjected to proper planning and supervision by a board of scholars who are known to have done actual field work. The report of the Andhra Pradesh Tribes Enquiry Committee (1962)14 analysed the root causes of the slow progress of tribal education. One of the significant findings of the committee was about the indifference of educated tribal people. Recommendations were given about adult education, religious education, ashram schools, grants and other educational facilities. Enquiry Committee recommended that the basic system of education might prove more effective in enhancing literacy. The creation of Tribal chairs in the Universities of Andhra Pradesh formed an important recommendation of the committee. Review of Related Literature 40 Srikant (1964)15 traced the progress of education in tribal areas after independence. He revealed that the state of education among the tribes has not been satisfactory in different parts of India, He laid emphasis on the education of the tribal girls, the need for trained teachers, opening of ashram schools and suggested that tribal education should be job oriented. The recommendations of the work group on education of Backward classes in the education commission, deal with the existing programme. Problems of nomadic and semi- nomadic tribes, hostel facilities and ashram school have been discussed. Bapat (1964)16 suggested a well planned system of education to remove the ignorance prevalent among the tribes. After analysing the reasons for the slow progress in tribal education, the author suggested the types of education for tribal children and adults. At the end a few suggestions are put forward for the improvement of tribal education. A report of the Seminar on Employment of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (1965)'' examined some problems of education of scheduled tribes students with special refere3ce to the extent of wastage and the extent to which the scheduled Tribes show their preference for different types of education and the reason for not getting persons for appointment to different posts. The report also Review of Related Literature 41 contains detailed recommendations for the improvement of their education. The tribal language and its role as a medium of instruction was the main focus in the Report of the Tribal Language Committee (1966)18. Describing the consequences of imparting education through languages other than mother tongue, the committee recommended the recognition of tribal language as the media of instruction. A seminar on the tribal education in India (1967)'' organized by the National Council of Educational Research and Training analysed the various aspects of tribal education like the educational facilities available, coverage, wastage and stagnation, basic problems of tribal education, methods and voluntary agencies in the education of tribal people and utilization of financial assistance. The seminar made recommendations regarding aims, objectives and policy of tribal education, teachers qualification, medium of instruction, school facilities, text books and curriculum. Ambasht (1969)~' studied the impact of Education on Tribal cultures. The study focused on the District on Ranchi especially on the Munda, Oraon and Kharia tribes. The same author for his Doctoral thesis made a critical study of tribal education (1970)~'. This study mainly concentrated on the Oraons, Kharias and Mundas of Review of Related Literature 42 Ranchi district. Their traditional education, agencies of modern education, village schools, attitudes of teachers and students, female education, social education, economic education, primary education and above all the impact of education was dealt with. Based on the findings of the study, recommendations were made for the improvement of tribal education. Another seminar on Education and Economic Development of Tribal People (1970)~~ analysed the various problems of tribal education along with their implications on their economic development. Linking education with the economic development of tribals were the main subject dealt within the seminar, education of tribals in industrial areas, education as determinant of economic development, factors hindering tribal education, cultural compulsions and economic development of ungraded school system with reference to education and economic development of tribals etc. The seminar made detailed recommendations on all the above aspects of tribal education. Ambasht (1971)~~ in another report dealt with the policy of tribal education in which he concluded that since education is a state subject planning with regard to tribal education should also be done by the respective states within the broad frame work of the national policy of tribal education. Review of Related Literature 43 The tribal Education Unit NCERT prepared a report ( 1 9 7 1 ) ~ ~ based on a study conducted in three states and one union territory (Assam, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Tripura) on the utilization of financial assistance by tribal students. Seven major tribes (Khasis, Caros, Mundas, Oraons, Hoes, Gonds and Bhils) covering 44.6O/0 of the total tribal population of India were covered in this study. The study gave a comprehensive idea regarding the different types of schemes, criteria of implementation and benefits accorded to the tribal pupils in the areas selected. The report also made detailed recommendations regarding schemes of financial assistance, criteria of implementation and the machinery of disbursement, adequacy of financial assistance, frequency of disbursement and follow up, utilization, and non-utilization. Another Seminar on Tribal Education (1972 )~~ was conducted under the auspices of the Tribal Unit of NCERT. I n this report the problems of primary, secondary and vocational education of tribes are analysed. Recommendations regarding the different aspects of tribal education specially vocational education are given in the report. I n a study conducted by Goyal ( 1973 )~~ the important events and trends that contributed to the spread of education among the depressed classes during the British period were analysed. It was found that during the Pre-British period, depressed classes were deprived of equality of opportunity in social, political, economic and Review of Related Literature 44 educational matters. The social reform movement initiated in the nineteenth century was instrumental for awakening consciousness for the uplift of the depressed classes. The religious neutrality practiced by the British Government and the subsequent establishment of Government schools which were secular in character helped the promotion of education among the depressed classes. Provision of special facilities, creation of monetary incentives in the form of fee concessions, stipends, scholarships, grants etc., reservation of seats in educational institutions and reservation of posts in service were instrumental for the promotion of education among the depressed classes. Srivastava (1974)~' made a study on the personality pattern of the Children of 'Criminal Tribes' of Uttar Pradesh and the sample for the study included 100 boys studying in Ashram type schools of four districts. It was found that the children of criminal tribes possessed low intellectual ability. They had confidence, but were shy at social interaction. Though not satisfied with their existing status, they were optimistic about their future. They tried to gratify their immediate needs though were not impulsive. They had control over their social adjustments. Chitnis (1974)~~ conducted a Sociological survey on the Educational Problems of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes College Students. The study aimed at assessing the status of the Review of Related Literature 45 S scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students, comparing the SC/ST students with non SC/ST students and identifying the type of difficulties and obstacles they face. The main tool of research was the Interview Schedule. The important findings were: Very few women among schedule caste and schedule tribe students went for higher education, most of the scheduled caste and schedule Tribe students went for higher education, most of the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students were unmarried. By and large the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe Students were enrolled in the arts faculties rather than in the science faculties. Most of them came from disadvantaged conditions. Desai and Pandor (1974)~' investigated into the status of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe Students in the institutions of learning, comparing the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students with non-scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students and into nature of discrimination, types of obstacles and difficulties that they faced. The following were the important facts revealed by the study. Adult education seemed to have made very little impact in spreading literacy. I n a large number of cases the educated among the scheduled castes and scheduled tribes were first generation students. Scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students were comparatively low in academic performance. Review of Related Literature 46 Dubey (1974)~' analysed the Socio-economic background of the schedule caste and scheduled tribe college students of Assam and saw how their education affected their aspiration and performance, their feelings and opinion about their status, their way of life and their participation in other activities. The important findings were: The majority of teachers opined that the scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students had poor intelligence. They also maintained that the facilities of reservation for them were justified. Adiseshiah and Mananathan (1974)~' conducted a study on educational problems of scheduled caste and scheduled tribes in Tamil Nadu. The study revealed that the wastage was very high at the primary level, but at the middle school stage the scheduled tribes had an edge over the non scheduled. Majority of students coming from illiterate homes in difficult financial situation engaged in no extra-curricular activities. Based on the recommendations Government implemented policies for the education of the scheduled caste and schedule tribe students. Sachitananda (1974)~~ conducted a study in Bihar and showed that among the college going scheduled tribe students 25 per cent were girls whereas among the college going scheduled caste students the percentage of girls was only 0.4. Nearly 30 per cent of the scheduled caste students were married. 3/4 of the students of both the communities opted for Arts courses. Most of these students had Review of Related Literature 47 high academic and occupational aspirations. Most of the teachers regarded their scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students as inferior. Rajagopalan (1974)~~ conducted a study on the educational progress and problems of scheduled castes and scheduled tribes school students in Karnataka. The study revealed that 30 percent of the students lived in hostels while their parents lived in villages. Economic donations of the students were 'uncomfortable' and domestic work seemed to come in their way. The amount given as scholarship was inadequate. Sahai (1975)~~ stressed that education plays an important role in eradicating untouchability. He recommended that education at all levels should be given free and compulsory. Meritorious students should be given free, higher foreign education. Dixit (1975)~~ made a study of educational need pattern of adults in the urban and tribal communities of Rajastan. Finding out the educational need pattern of adults in urban, rural and tribal communities, the attitude of adults towards their needs for continuing education and relationship between different age groups and the useful educational programmes and educational activities were the main objectives of the study. The study revealed that most of the tribal community were in the age group of 20-35 years and were Review of Related Literature 48 married. Their main occupation was agriculture. Most of them had very little education. Lakra (1976)~~ conducted a study on the Impact of Education on the Tribals of Rachi District. The study revealed the changes that have occurred due to the education in the tribal population, especially in their socio-economic and political spheres. The progress of education of these tribals before and after independence and its impact on their social, cultural, political and economic progress was studied. Education brought three fold benefits. They got emancipation from forced labour, got their land back and their self respect reinforced. Education freed them from ignorance, social taboos, superstitions and poverty. Shah and Patel (1977)~' studied the impact of education from a structural point of view. I n order to assess the impact of college education on tribal social structure on the strength of empirical data, they argued that the benefits of education such as postmatric scholarships and residential facilities were enjoyed by the upper strata of the scheduled tribes. Study revealed that the benefits of higher education had favored the higher segments of the tribal group. Sharma (1977)~~ investigated the activities of tribal education, type of school building, type of school equipments, the role of teachers in shaping the attitudes of students and other allied factors. He considered education as one of the significant elements in Review of Related Literature 49 harnessing the process of change to the advantage of the local community. Pandey (1979)~' conducted a study on the education and social mobility among scheduled tribes with the objectives of analysing the influence of education on social mobility among the schedule Tribes. Socio-economic status among the scheduled tribes was closely related to each other. Among the educated, there was strong reluctance to the traditional social conditions and occupational structure. The emergence of elites among scheduled tribes, in government jobs and power, was another adaptive change. Joshi (1980)~' conducted a study to assess and to analyse the educational problems of students belonging to the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes of Baroda district in the context of sociological, Psychological, Pedagogic and economic factors. I n spite of their poor sociological background the students did not have a high level of feeling of rejection. Sachadeva (1980)~' conducted a study on Spantial Analysis of the socio-economic structure of Tribal communities in Maharashtra addressed itself to the influence of social and demographic variables like urbanisation, literacy and population size on participation rate and pattern of economic participation in different industrial categories. The study results showed that it is poverty that compels Review of Related Literature 50 both tribal male and female to work for a livelihood through out the year. Phande and Shukla ( 1 9 8 0 ) ~ ~ studied about the drop out among scheduled tribe college students in Vyasa Arts and Science college in Gujarat University. The major findings were: the percentage of drop outs among scheduled tribe students was 53.48 per cent of which 59.23 percent belong to tribal male and 60.46 per cent females. The rate of drop outs among the non-tribal students both male and female in the arts and the commerce faculties were lower than those among tribal students. Pandey (1981)~~ identified the following factors which led to low academic achievement on the part of scheduled tribe students. The factors were: The tribal students were not able to avail properly of educational opportunities provided by the formal educational set up due to their socio-cultural backwardness and the gap between school environment and family background. Their poor economic condition forced them to do manual labour. There was bitter and negative interaction pattern between non-tribal and tribal students. Teachers showed indifference to tribal students. The study on Harijans made by Upadhyay ( 1 9 8 1 ) ~ ~ revealed that Harijans were debarred from entering temples, on other hand these untouchables aspired to attain this privilege. Most of the lower class people had no inhibition about social intercourse with upper Review of Related Literature 51 caste men. Higher caste people did not favour social relations like marriage of their children with harijans and entry into the religious places. Jadhav (1983 )~~ conducted a study of educational development of tribals of Nazi district. He studied the historical background of tribals, their social, cultural, religious, background and their economic conditions and backwardness and a description of their educational progress. The major findings were: education in tribal areas had immensely expanded during the period 1970-80. Primary schools were opened in Villages. The syllabi of schools needed to be oriented towards the needs of the tribals. The tribals had their own dialect. As such, the elementary education needed to be imparted in tribal languages, the state language being gradually introduced. And most of the problems of tribals were economic. They got reflected in education. Lakshminarayan (1983 )~~ examined the impact of adult education among the Tribals of Andhra Pradesh and found that the response of tribal participants was satisfactory in reading ability, arithmetical ability and writing ability. Nambissan ( 1 9 8 3 ) ~ ~ studied about the educational and occupational mobility among the Bhils of Rajasthan. The objective of the study was to understand the nature and magnitude inequality of educational opportunities between tribal and non-tribals (Bhils and Brahmins). The major findings of the Review of Related Literature 52 study were: the tribal house hold were educationally backward as compared to Brahmin house holds. The ability of household to send one or more children to school appeared to vary with the size of the household. The economic status of the house hold appeared to be crucial factor behind inequalities of educational opportunity. The spread of occupational opportunities among the tribal house holds were relatively narrow. The tribal respondents revealed extremely positive attitude towards education. Pande (1983)~~ conducted an empirical study on education of Tribals in Orissa to understand the usefulness of education in tribal life and to find out the nature of impediments and hurdles for all educational programmes meant for tribal people. Some of the major findings were: Majority of teachers felt that the syllabus was not suitable to the daily use of tribal children. Teachers participating in workshops, seminars etc, were very poor. There was no regular inspection and supervision of school teaching for schools managed by Harijan and Tribal welfare Department, which created a lot of hindrance in the smooth management. Both teachers and students were of the opinion that the amount of stipend was very low and should be enhanced keeping in view the present condition of the society. Sharma (1984)~' conducted a study aimed at investigating the effect of different incentives like text books, uniforms, and boarding Review of Related Literature 53 facilities on enrolment of scheduled caste and scheduled tribe students. The study revealed that as a result of incentives the increase in enrolment between 1973 - 74 and 1982-83 among the boys of 6-14 age group of primary school level was from 60 percent to 95 per cent (all the groups) and from 49.2 to 92.7 percent among the scheduled tribes. Gupta (1985)~' conducted a study aimed at surveying the conditions of Adivasi students and to investigate the role of some important factors which influenced their adjustment and attitudes. The major findings of the study were: certain socio-cultural and personal factors influenced the adjustment of the Adivasi students to a great extent. The overall situation posed by the Adivasi students was far from satisfactory; Their problems of adjustment to different spheres of the personal, financial, social and academic depend on various factors, such as social class accommodation, personality traits, distance from their native place, level of education and financial incentives. Chand (1985)~' conducted an important study on self- perception, socio-economic status, vocational and educational aspirations and academic achievements of various Nagatribal pupil- Angami, Ao and Sema tribes. The major finding showed that: socio economic status did not influence the vocational choice of Angami pupils. While the educational aspirations of Ao pupils were found to Review of Related Literature 54 be significantly different from those of Sema pupils, they were found similar to those of angar pupils. The educational aspirations of boys belonging to Angani, A and Sema Tribes differ significantly from those of girls of respective tribes. Boys belonging to these three tribes found to have similar educational aspirations and the educational aspirations of A0 tribes belonging to the high socio-economic status group were found to be significantly different from those pupils at middle and low socio-economic status group. Choudary (1985)~~ in his study aimed at finding out the effect of education on the scheduled tribes belonging to different economic settings. The major findings were: the spread of education among scheduled tribe communities were uniform at the tea gardens some what uneven among the indigenous scheduled tribes. The educated of all the categories did not favour the joint family system and involvement in common endeavors but considered education as a means to social improvement. Educated scheduled tribes had more modern attitudes towards social institutions of occupation, religion, family, marriage and politics as compared to the illiterates. The indigenous scheduled tribes were generally more advanced compared to the migrant scheduled tribes, both plantation workers and village settlers in the field of literacy and gainful occupation. Kumari (1986)~~ conducted a descriptive study on the social attitudes of the problems of scheduled castes and Scheduled Tribes Review of Related Literature 55 girls in Secondary Schools in Karnataka. The study recommended for effective and suitable guidance to migrate the problems of students in Scheduled category. Efforts should also be made to implement the remedial measures to develop favourable attitude to certain social issues. Lekheba (1986)~~ made a study to identify the structural variables which impede the spread of formal education among scheduled tribes and also studies the educational problems of tribal children. A sample of 404 tribal pupils was drawn through stratified random sampling techniques from junior high schools and secondary schools. He found that tribal girls faced more difficulties than boys in doing their home work but were found to be more adjusted with teachers as compared to their male counterparts. The low achievement of tribal pupils was attributed to factors like educational backwardness, unfavourable attitude of parents towards education and lack of motivation. Malhotra (1986)~~ made a study aimed at finding out the educational problems among the different tribal groups, particularly Nicobarease in details. He has given a short account of six tribal groups of these islands, a historical and developmental study particularly with regard to Onge, the great Andamanese and Nicobarese. He has dealt with the suitability of the curricula, and opined that modern education is not only superfluous but it Review of Related Literature 56 discharges any initiative and creativity on the part of the tribal children. Aswathy (1987)'~ conducted a study on the relationship between education of scheduled tribes and their socio-economic mobility Selected the sample from Munda, Oraon and Khalia tribes of Ranchi and sumla districts of Bihar. She found that socio-economic mobility in scheduled tribes increases with the spread of education. Shyamilal (1987)'~ made a systematic and authentic study of two tribal blocks on Banswara district of Rajasthan. The main purpose of the study was examining education facilities available in the district and extension of formal education among the socially disadvantaged groups. For the collection of data field work and survey techniques were used. The major findings of the study were: socio-economic variables have their impact on the educability of children. During summer and non-agricultural seasons tribal pupils have neither work in the field nor education at school. Geographical isolation and inadequate educational facilities constrain the extension of education among tribal communities. Low level of motivation and aspiration act as constraints for spread of tribal education. Purandase (1987)'~ studied the progress and problems of Ashram schools of Thana district. The objectives of the study were: to study the availability of educational facilities for scheduled tribe pupils, to study the availability of grants in government and non- Review of Related Literature 57 government ashram schools, to study the educational, financial, administrational and social problems of Ashram schools and to study the programmes of Ashram schools. The findings of the study were: state and central government provide financial assistance to the schools. High schools and hostel facilities were available for scheduled tribe pupils and they were provided books, school uniforms and meals along with allowance for boarding and loading in the hostel. Hemlata (1988)~' conducted a study on 'Tribals and Education- A Quest for Integration in the Mainstream". The study aimed at analysing the role of modern education in integrating tribals with the main stream and also attempted to identify the regional level area in which integration of various tribal groups in Rajasthan is required. The study suggested that there was a need to suggest an alternative model for tribal education, which should on the one hand help the tribals to preserve their ethnicity, and on the other, speed up their integration with the regional society. Special courses oriented to technology rather than agriculture and a CO-curricular package of activities should be made available to tribal pupils. The methodology of education in this context requires a wide structural transformation. Beena (1989)~' studied the educational problems of tribal pupils and also their educational aspirations and achievement motivation. A sample of 221 tribal pupils and 116 non-tribal pupils of Review of Related Literature 58 classes V1 - XI1 in Chembili district, was selected for the purpose of the study. She found that senior basic level tribal pupils of general schools had more adjustment problems with their teachers as compared to their tribal counterparts. The rate of wastage and stagnation was significantly higher in the tribal group. The facilities in the special tribal schools were also better than those in general schools. Bhatnagar (1989)~' conducted a study of Home Background and Selected Psychological, Vocational Planning Variable of Tribal High School students in and around Shillong. It was the only study available in the area of educational and career guidance for tribal population. The sample comprised 338, class X I tribal and non-tribal pupils, both boys and girls from rural and urban areas. The study did not indicate much difference between tribal and non-tribal students in Meghalaya in terms of background vocational planning characteristics. But on general mental ability, socio-economic status and academic achievements, tribal pupils were slightly inferior to their non-tribal counterparts. As compared to non-tribal girls and boys, tribal boys and tribal girls were found to be more independent in their job values. The fundamental reason lay in the nature of their society being a matriarchal society. The parents and siblings of such children play a significant role in their educational and vocational planning. Review of Related Literature 59 Rehman (1989)~~ made a study on some aspects of the primary and secondary education of the Mishing Tribe of Assam. The study addressed itself to issues of enrolment and drop out and relationship between the appointment of teachers and teacher student ratio. A sample of 500 families was selected from nine villages randomly and the head of each family was interviewed. The study revealed that poverty, lack of infrastructure and literacy among parents are the main causes of low enrolment among the tribal children. Many pupils from the tribal community dropped out between the primary and secondary levels and between secondary and college levels. Ramana (1989)~~ conducted a case study of Ashram schools on the problems of education among tribal communities of Andhra Pradesh, drew a sample of 18 students from six tribal Ashram schools together with their parents and 31 teachers. The study revealed that the infrastructure of Ashram schools was poor, teaching-learning process not satisfactory, and stagnation and wastage were high. But the researcher found a perceptible impact of the Ashram school on local communities. Gaur (1989)~~ made a survey of special facilities given by the government for educational uplift of tribal population, and it investigated the attitude of teachers and guardians towards this endeavor. The analysis of information showed that the special facilities provided by government do influence the educational Review of Related Literature 60 development of tribal children. The teachers covered by the study felt that vacations if declared to coincide with harvesting season, will bring down the absenteeism in the schools. They also advocated training in self-employment for all tribal pupils and medical facilities for ailing tribal pupils. Another study by gaur ( 1 9 9 0 ) ~ ~ revealed the difference between the facilities available and facilities utilized by tribal pupils of various sub-communities of the tribes in Rajasthan, between 1984 and 1987. The study was conducted on a sample of 400 scheduled tribes pupils of class V1 who belonged to the Mina, Bhil, Grassia, Damor tribes. The researcher noticed that the enrolment in the initial classes was high but was low in the subsequent classes. An important findings of the study was the existence of hardly any relationship between the school curriculum and the traditional occupation and culture of the tribal population. Only two-thirds and one-third of the facilities provided were being availed by scheduled tribes boys and girls respectively. Ekk ( 1 9 9 0 ) ~ ~ conducted a descriptive study on the development of tribal education in Orissa after independence. The study concentrated on issues related to educational facilities, enrolment and literacy, effectiveness of various welfare schemes and the overall educational development of tribals in Orissa. The study indicated heavy drop out (73.48%) at the primary school stage