SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF GULF MIGRATION ON MARINE FISHERFOLK IN MALAPPURAM DISTRICT, KERALA Thesis Submitted to the UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT For the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ECONOMICS By NUSAIBA.K.P (U.O.No.5451/2020/Admn. Dated 15.06.2020) Under the supervision of Dr. SHIBINU. S Associate Professor and Head Department of Economics PSMO College & Research Guide, Department of Economics EMEA College of Arts and Science Kondotty Research and Postgraduate Department of Economics EMEA College of Arts and Science Kondotty January 2025 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the thesis titled “SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF GULF MIGRATION ON MARINE FISHERFOLK IN MALAPPURAM DISTRICT, KERALA” is a bonafide record of research work done for the award of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics by NUSAIBA.K.P, (U.O.No.5451/ 2020/Admn, University Order Dated :15.06.2020), Research scholar (Full-Time), Research and Postgraduate Department of Economics, EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty. It is the original work of the candidate carried out under my guidance and supervision and the result of the research presented in this thesis, in full or in part, has not been submitted to any other Institute or University for the award of any degree or diploma or other similar titles. Plagiarism is checked and found within the permitted limits. Place: Kondotty Date: Dr. Shibinu. S Supervising Teacher Associate Professor and Head Department of Economics PSMO College, Tirurangadi & Research Guide, Department of Economics EMEA College of Arts & Science, Kondotty. Dr. Ibrahim Cholakkal Co-Guide Professor Department of Economics EMEA College of Arts & Science, Kondotty. DECLARATION I, NUSAIBA. K. P, affirm that the thesis titled “SOCIO-ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF GULF MIGRATION ON MARINE FISHERFOLK IN MALAPPURAM DISTRICT, KERALA” submitted to the University of Calicut for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Economics is a bonafide record of research done by me under the guidance of Dr. Shibinu.S, Associate Professor, Department of Economics, PSMO College, Tirurangadi and Co- Guide, Dr. Ibrahim Cholakkal, Professor, Research and Postgraduate Department of Economics, EMEA College of Arts & Science, Kondotty. I declare that I had not submitted this thesis earlier for the award of any degree, diploma, fellowship or similar title or recognition of any University/Institution. The contents of the thesis have undergone a plagiarism check using iThenticate software at C.H. M.K Library, University of Calicut and the similarity index is within the permissible limit. Place: Kondotty NUSAIBA.K. P Date: Dr. Shibinu S Associate Professor and Head Department of Economics PSMO College, Tirurangadi & Research Guide, Department of Economics EMEA College of Arts & Science College Kondotty. ACKNOWLEDGMENT With immense gratitude and deep respect, I extend my heartfelt thanks to my guide and supervisor, Dr. Shibinu.S, Associate Professor and Head of the Department of Economics, PSMO College, Tirurangadi and Research Guide at the Research and Postgraduate Department of Economics, EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty. Throughout this research journey, Dr. Shibinu.S provided consistent guidance, valuable insights and unwavering encouragement, which were integral to the successful completion of my work. His attentive supervision and thoughtful suggestions provided the clarity and direction needed to address challenges effectively. I deeply value his dedication and support, which have been invaluable at every stage of this academic pursuit. I am deeply grateful to Dr. Ibrahim Cholakkal, Professor, Department of Economics, EMEA College of Arts & Science, Kondotty, for his vital support and expertise, which played a crucial role in enriching the progress of my thesis throughout the research journey. I also extend my sincere gratitude to Mr. Abdurazaque. P M (Head of the Department & Associate Professor), Mr. Mohammed Najeeb. P M (Former Head of the Department), Dr. Hussin. V (Assistant Professor), Mr. Mohammed Nisar. T V (Assistant Professor), Dr. Saleel Ahammed. A K (Guest Faculty), Department of Economics, EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty, Dr.Rajashekharan.K E, Assistant Professor, Department of Statistics, EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty and Dr.Shihabudheen.N, Assistant Professor, Amal College of Advanced Studies,Nilambur, for their support and encouragement. I extend my deepest thanks to Dr. Azad, Assistant Professor, Department of Economics, MES Mampad College, for his exceptional guidance and support during this research process. I sincerely thank Prof. (Dr) Mohammed Riyadh.A, Principal of EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty, for his continuous support. I also extend my heartfelt thanks to the former Principals, Prof. (Dr) Abdul Muneer.V, Lt. Abdul Rasheed. P, and Dr. Ayoob .C P, for their prompt assistance. I would like to extend my heartfelt gratitude for the invaluable advice and insights provided by Dr. Rejula Helan .K.P, Head of the Department of Economics, John Matthai Centre, University of Calicut, Dr. Zabeena Hameed.P and Dr. Shyjan.D, Associate Professors, John Matthai Centre, University of Calicut, Professor (Dr) Shadeed Ramzan.C.P, Head of the Department of Economics, Government Arts and Science College, Calicut, Dr. Umaiban.M.M, Assistant Professor, St. Aloysius College, Elthuruth, Dr. Ramla.A and Dr. Noushad Chengodan, Assistant Professors, Department of Economics, PSMO College, Tirurangadi , for their vital support in shaping and enhancing this research process. I express my gratitude to the librarians of the Centre for Development Studies (CDS) Trivandrum, Dr. John Matthai Centre, C H Mohamed Koya Library, University of Calicut. I am deeply grateful for the support provided by the administrative staff of EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty. I am truly grateful to my friends and fellow researchers at EMEA College of Arts and Science, Kondotty, including Abid Rahman.K, Sabira.A, Nasira Banu.M, Umaira.K.K,Soumya.T, Sreeja.A, Amrutha.P, Mansoor.P, Shoniya.K, and Saeeda.P, for their continuous support and encouragement throughout the research process. I extend my deepest gratitude to Dr. Abdul Rasheed.M (Guest Faculty), Government College for Women, Malappuram, for generously dedicating his valuable time to engage in thoughtful discussions at every stage of the research work. His insightful feedback and constructive suggestions have been invaluable throughout the research journey. I am also grateful to Dr. Muhammed Fazal, Researcher, United Sands, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia and Mr. Amidhali.V, Research Scholar, Farook College, for their invaluable assistance and support during my research analysis. I also express my sincere thanks to Dr.K. Muhammed Jamsheer Naha, Principal, Malabar Central School, for his immense support during my research. I extend my special thanks to the primary survey respondents for their cooperation during the data collection process. I am deeply indebted to my parents, Mr. Kunhimuhammed. K. P (Late) and Mrs.Kadeeja , whose love, support and heartfelt prayers have been the foundation of my journey. I am truly grateful to my better half, Mr. Faris.P, whose continuous support, understanding and patience have been a constant source of strength. His encouragement and shared responsibilities have allowed me to focus entirely on my research. I extend my heartfelt thanks to my son, Muhammed Emin, whose presence has brought joy, positivity and inspiration, motivating me every step of the way. I owe them a profound debt of gratitude. I extend my heartfelt gratitude to my in-law parents, Mr. Sulaiman.P and Mrs.Ramla, for their persistent support, kindness and encouragement. I would also like to express my sincere thanks to my sisters, brother and other family members for their endless support and motivation. Above all, I humbly express my deepest gratitude to the Almighty for His boundless mercy, love and blessings. His divine presence has lightened my path, offering consistent comfort and strength during moments of uncertainty. In every challenge, His guidance has been a source of steady support, leading me with grace. His presence has brought peace to my heart during times of difficulty. All praise and heartfelt thanks to God for His eternal kindness and blessings in my life. Nusaiba.K.P CONTENTS List of Tables List of Figures List of Abbreviations Chapter No. Title Page No. 1 Introduction 1-30 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Significance of the Fishing Industry 2 1.3 Socio-Economic Conditions of Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala 6 1.4 Statement of the Research Problem 8 1.5 Significance of the Study 10 1.6 Research Questions 11 1.7 Objectives of the study 11 1.8 Hypotheses 12 1.9 Analytical Framework 12 1.10 Data and Methodology 16 1.11 Scheme of the Study 28 1.12 Limitations of the study 29 2 Conceptual Issues and Empirical Studies 31-65 2.1 Introduction 31 2.2 Basic terms used in this study 31 2.3 Theoretical Review 34 2.4 Empirical Review 37 2.5 Research Gap 65 3 Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala: An Overview 67-108 3.1 Introduction 67 3.2 Fisheries Sector in Kerala 68 3.3 Marine Fishery 69 3.4 Fish Production in Kerala 71 3.5 Export of Marine Products in Kerala 75 3.6 Marine Fisherfolk Community in Kerala 76 3.7 Socio-Economic Conditions of Marine Fisherfolk Community in Kerala 82 3.8 The Stages of Transition: Fisheries Sector in Kerala 95 3.9 Survival through Migration: Strategies of Marine Fisherfolk 96 3.10 Kerala to the Gulf: An Overview of Historical and Contemporary Migration 99 3.11 Socio-Economic Effects of Gulf Migration on Kerala 105 3.12 Conclusion 106 4 Socio-Economic Profile of Marine Fisherfolk in Malappuram District 109-139 4.1 Introduction 109 4.2 Classification of Marine Fisherfolk Households 109 4.3 Socio-Economic Profile of Marine Fisherfolk 111 4.4 Conclusion 137 5 Migration among Marine Fisherfolk: Determinants and Patterns 141-161 5.1 Introduction 141 5.2 Pattern of Migration 141 5.3 Determinants of Migration 144 5.4 Pre-Migration Characteristics and Determinants for Migration 145 5.5 Marine Fisherfolk in Gulf Countries: Factors of Stay Duration 156 5.6 Conclusion 159 6 Income and Expenditure Disparity: Migrant and Non- Migrant Marine Fisherfolk Households 163-179 6.1 Introduction 163 6.2 Income Disparity: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Households 163 6.3 Expenditure Disparity: Migrant vs Non-migrant Fisherfolk Households. 168 6.4 Expenditure Patterns on Food, Non-food and Essential Spending 174 6.5 Conclusion 176 7 Impact of Migration on the Socio-Economic Status of Marine Fisherfolk 183-204 7.1 Introduction 183 7.2 Sustainable Livelihood Index: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 183 7.3 Impact of Migration on Socio-Economic Status: An Inter- Analysis 186 7.4 SLI and Socio-Economic Status of Fisherfolk Households 192 7.5 Impact of Migration on Socio-Economic Status: An Intra- Analysis 193 7.6 Conclusion 202 8 Findings and Conclusion 203-223 8.1 Introduction 203 8.2 Major Findings 203 8.3 Recommendations and Suggestions 215 8.4 Scope for Future Research 217 8.5 Conclusion 217 References 225-236 Appendix 237-247 LIST OF TABLES Table No. Title Page No. 1.1 The Sample Selected for the Study 20 1.2 Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) Components 27 3.1 Fisheries Sector: A Comparative Overview of Kerala and India 69 3.2 District-Wise Distribution of Total Coastal Line in Kerala 70 3.3 Marine Fish Production in Kerala 2022-23 (in Tonnes) 74 3.4 Export of Marine Products in India and Kerala (In Million Metric Tonnes) 75 3.5 Marine Fishing Villages in Kerala 77 3.6 Marine Fisherfolk Families in Kerala 79 3.7 Marine Fisherfolk Population in Kerala 2022-23 80 3.8 Marine Fisherfolk Population in Kerala from 2020-21 to 2022- 2023 81 3.9 Religion of Marine Fisherfolk Community in Kerala 83 3.10 Housing Condition of Marine Fisherfolk Community in Kerala 84 3.11 District-wise details of the Family Size and Sex Ratio of Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala 85 3.12 Educational Status of Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala 87 3.13 Active Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala 89 3.14 Active Marine Fisherfolk from 2020-21 to 2022-23 90 3.15 Fishermen Per capita Income as a Percentage of State Per capita 92 3.16 Fishing Craft in the Marine Fishery Sector in Kerala 94 3.17 Estimated Emigrants from Kerala 101 3.18 Rate of Emigrants in 2018 102 3.19 Destination of Migrant in Kerala 103 3.20 Household Remittances by District, 2013 and 2018 104 4.1 Age Distribution of Migrant and Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 112 4.2 Gender Distribution of Migrant and Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 113 4.3 Marital Status of Migrant and Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 114 4.4 Family Size of Migrant and Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 115 4.5 Ownership of Ration Card: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 117 4.6 Type of Ration Card: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 118 4.7 Fuel used for Cooking among Migrant and Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 119 4.8 Land Holding: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 120 4.9 House Ownership: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 122 4.10 Type of Housing: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 123 4.11 Educational Attainment: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 125 4.12 Livelihood Diversification: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 126 4.13 Occupational Status: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 127 4.14 Income Pattern: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Fisherfolk Households 129 4.15 Expenditure Pattern: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Fisherfolk Households 131 4.16 Saving Habit: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 133 4.17 Debt Status: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 134 4.18 Reasons for Debt: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 135 4.19 Asset Holding: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 136 5.1 Occupation Before and After Migration 141 5.2 Push and Pull Factors Influencing Migration: Responses from Marine Fisherfolk 145 5.3 Age at first visit and Push factors of Migration 147 5.4 Pre-Migration Marital Status and Push Factors of Migration 148 5.5 Family Size Before Migration and Push Factors of Migration 149 5.6 Occupation Before Migration and Push Factors of Migration 150 5.7 Age at first visit and Pull factors of Migration 152 5.8 Marital Status Before Migration and Pull Factors of Migration 153 5.9 Family Size Before Migration and Pull Factors of Migration 154 5.10 Occupation Before Migration and Pull Factors of Migration 155 5.11 OLS Estimates of Factors Influencing the Duration of Stay (Dependent Variable: Years of Total Stay in Gulf Countries) 156 5.12 Weighted Least Square Estimates, Factors Influencing the Duration of Stay (Dependent Variable: Years of Total Stay in Gulf Countries) 158 6.1 Gini Coefficient of Migrant and Non- Migrant 166 6.2 Income Differences by Education and Occupation among Migrants 167 6.3 Expenditure Pattern: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Fisherfolk Households 169 6.4 OLS Estimates of Determinants of Expenditure (Dependent Variable: Monthly Expenditure) 171 6.5 Weighted Least Square Estimates of Determinants of Expenditure (Dependent Variable: Monthly Expenditure) 172 6.6 Food, Non-Food and other Expenditure Pattern among Fisherfolk Households 174 6.7 Monthly Expenditure: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Fisherfolk Households 175 7.1 Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) of Marine Fisherfolk 184 7.2 Impact of Migration and Contributing Elements on Socio- Economic Status 187 7.3 Marginal Effects of Migration, Education, Type of Housing, Income and Occupation on the Socio-Economic Status 189 7.4 SLI and Socio-Economic Status of Marine Fisherfolk 192 7.5 Type of Housing: Pre- and Post-Migration 194 7.6 Total Land Holding of Migrant Household: Pre and Post Migration. 195 7.7 Savings Habits during Pre- and Post-Migration 197 7.8 Debt Status during Pre- and Post-Migration 198 7.9 Durable Asset Holdings during Pre- and Post- Migration 199 7.10 Correlations between Income and Remittances 200 7.11 SLI and Socio-Economic Status of Migrant Households 201 LIST OF FIGURES Table No. Title Page No. 1.1 Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) 12 3.1 Fish Production of India and Kerala 71 3.2 Trends of Fish Production in Kerala (in Lakh Tonnes) 72 4.1 Respondent Households: Migrant and Non-Migrant Marine Fisherfolk 110 5.1 Major Destinations of Migrants 142 6.1 Income Disparity: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Fisherfolk Households 165 7.1 Livelihood Capitals: Migrant vs Non-Migrant Fisherfolk Households 185 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ANOVA : Analysis of Variance CMFRI : Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute DFID : Department for International Development EEZ : Exclusive Economic Zones FAO : Food and Agriculture Organization GAAT : General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade GDP : Gross Domestic Product GCC : Gulf Cooperation Council GOI : Government of India INP : Indo-Norwegian Project IOM : International Organization for Migration NOAA : National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration MSY : Maximum Sustainable Yield MMT : Million Metric Tone SAF : Society for Assistance to Fisherwomen SHG : Self-Help Groups SLF : Sustainable Livelihood Framework SLI : Sustainable Livelihood Index SES : Socio-Economic Status OLS : Ordinary Least Square WLS : Weighted Least Square ABSTRACT The ocean, with its vast and rich ecosystem, plays a vital role in shaping the economic, social and cultural lives of people globally. Marine resources are particularly crucial for the development of coastal communities, offering livelihoods and ensuring food security. In Kerala, the fisheries sector plays a vital role in supporting livelihoods. It provides diverse, dynamic and resilient opportunities for approximately 10.6 lakh fisherfolk, which make up about 3.2 percent of the state’s population. This includes 8.15 lakh individuals engaged in marine fisheries and 2.45 lakh in inland fisheries. These communities are spread across 222 marine fishing villages and 113 inland fishing villages. The marine fisheries sector in Kerala holds immense significance, providing essential livelihoods and contributing to the overall socio-economic development of coastal communities. But they are considered as a marginalised section of the society. The marine sector in Kerala faces significant challenges, including the impacts of climate change, overfishing and environmental degradation. These challenges have led to unstable incomes and increased vulnerability for the marine fisherfolk. As a response, migration, particularly to gulf countries, has emerged as a survival strategy, with remittances helping improve income, living conditions and overall household well-being. Research on the socio-economic effects of migration, especially for marginalised communities like marine fisherfolk, remains limited. Further, there is limited research on the socio-economic effects of migration for marginalised communities like marine fisherfolk, particularly regarding how migration influences income and expenditure patterns. This study aims to address these gaps by examining the socio-economic characteristics, determinants of migration, patterns of migration and income disparities between migrant and non- migrant households. Malappuram district in Kerala is a prime example of migration, especially to Gulf countries. The district has also witnessed socio-economic changes due to migration. The district reflects its significant contribution to the migration and fishing community. This research examines the socio-economic impact of Gulf migration on marine fishermen in the Malappuram district of Kerala, using primary data collected from 375 households and secondary data for a comprehensive study. The findings show that migration has significantly improved the socio- economic status of migrant households, leading to better living conditions, type of housing, education and financial stability through remittances. Non-migrant households, in contrast, continue to face economic instability and limited opportunities for upward mobility. The study also highlights increased income inequality among migrant fisherfolk, influenced by education, occupation and remittance flows. Migration boosts livelihood sustainability by enhancing human, financial and physical capital. Despite improvements in socio-economic conditions, non-migrant households continue to face challenges such as limited occupational diversity and restricted opportunities for upward mobility. These issues are particularly severe during the monsoon season, which threatens both their livelihoods and housing stability. Climate change has emerged as a significant concern, exacerbating these vulnerabilities. To address these challenges, policy recommendations include expanding access to financial services, promoting livelihood diversification, such as aquaculture, improving female labour force participation through targeted programs, implementing climate change adaptation strategies and raising awareness through community education programs. Strengthening community networks and investing in sustainable development initiatives are significant to enhancing the long-term financial security and well- being of both migrant and non-migrant marine fisherfolk households. ABSTRACT ഴിവാറവും ഷമ്പന്നവഭാമ ആഴാഷഴയഴസ്ഥയുള്ള ഷമുദ്രും, ലറാകമഭമ്പാടുമുള്ള ജനങ്ങളുമെ ഷാമ്പത്തിക, ഷാമൂസിക, ഷാുംസ്കായിക ജീഴിതമത്ത രൂഩമെടുത്തുന്നതിൽ നിർണാമക ഩങ്ക് ഴസിക്കുന്നു. തീയലദവ ഷമൂസങ്ങളുമെ ഴികഷനത്തിനും, ഉഩജീഴനഭാർഗ്ഗും നൽകുന്നതിനും, ബക്ഷ്യസുയക്ഷ് ഉരൊക്കുന്നതിനും ഷമുദ്ര ഴിബഴങ്ങൾ ഴലമയ നിർണാമകഭാണ്. ലകയലത്തിമറ ജനങ്ങളുമെ ഉഩജീഴനഭാർഗ്ഗങ്ങമല ഩിന്തുണയ്ക്കുന്നതിൽ ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധന ലഭഖറയുമെ ഩങ്ക് ഴലമയ ഴലുതാണ് . ഷുംസ്ഥാന ജനഷുംഖയയുമെ 3.2 വതഭാനും ഴരുന്ന ഏകലദവും 10.6 റക്ഷ്ും ഭത്സ്യമത്താളിറാലികൾക്ക് വഴഴിധയഭാർന്നതും, ചറനാത്മകവും, സ്ഥിയതയുള്ളതഭാമ അഴഷയങ്ങൾ ഭത്സ്യ ഫന്ധന ലഭഖറ പ്രദാനും മചയ്യുന്നു . ഇതിൽ 8.15 റക്ഷ്ും ലഩർ ഷമുദ്ര ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധനത്തിലുും 2.45 റക്ഷ്ും ലഩർ ഉൾനാെൻ ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധനത്തിലുും ഏർമെട്ടിയിക്കുന്നു. 222 ഷമുദ്ര ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധന ഗ്രാഭങ്ങലിലുും 113 ഉൾനാെൻ ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധന ഗ്രാഭങ്ങലിലുഭാമി ഈ ഷമൂസങ്ങൾ ഴയാഩിചുകികിെക്കുന്നു, ഇത് ഷുംസ്ഥാനത്തിമെ സുസ്ഥിയ ഉഩജീഴനഭാർഗ്ഗത്തിനും ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ഴികഷനത്തിനും ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധനത്തിമെ ഗണയഭാമ ഷുംബാഴന എടുത്തുകാണിക്കുന്നു. ലകയലത്തിമറ ഷമുദ്ര ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധന ലഭഖറ തീയലദവ ഷമൂസങ്ങളുമെ ഉഩജീഴനഭാർഗ്ഗങ്ങൾ നൽകുന്നതിലുും അഴരുമെ ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ഴികഷനത്തിന് ഷുംബാഴന നൽകുന്നതിലുും നിർണാമക ഩങ്ക് ഴസിക്കുന്നു. എന്നിരുന്നാലുും, ഈ ഷമൂസങ്ങമല ഩറലൊഴും ഷമൂസത്തിമറ ഒരു ഩാർവവഴൽക്കയിക്കമെട്ട ഴിബാഗഭാമാണ് കണക്കാക്കുന്നത്. കാറാഴസ്ഥാ ഴയതിമാനും, അഭിത ഭത്സ്യഫന്ധനും, ഩയിസ്ഥിതി നവീകയണും എന്നിഴയുമെ ആഘാതങ്ങൾ ഉൾമെമെ ലകയലത്തിമറ ഷമുദ്ര ലഭഖറ നിയഴധി മഴല്ലുഴിലികൾ ലനയിടുന്നു. ഇത്തയും പ്രശ്നങ്ങൾ ഭത്സ്യമത്താളിറാലികളുമെ ഴരുഭാനത്തിമറ അസ്ഥിയതയ്ക്കുും അഩകെഷാധയത ഴർദ്ധിെിക്കുന്നതിനും കൂൊമത അഴർക്കിെമിമറ ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ബുദ്ധിമുട്ടുകൾ ഴർദ്ധിെിക്കുന്നതിനും കായണഭാമി. മഴല്ലുഴിലികമല ഭരികെക്കുന്നതിനും ഉമർന്ന ജീഴിത നിറഴായും മകട്ടിെടുക്കുന്നതിനമുള്ള ഉഩാധിമാമി കുെിലമറ്റും എന്നത് ഒരു അതിജീഴന ഷുംഴിധാനഭാമി അഴർക്കിെമിൽ ഉമർന്നുഴന്നിട്ടുണ്ട്. പ്രലതയകിച്ച് ഗൾപ് യാജയങ്ങലിമറ കുരഞ്ഞ വഴദഗ്ധധയമുള്ള ലജാറികലിലറക്കുള്ള കുെിലമറ്റും . ഴരുഭാന ഴർദ്ധനഴിനും, ജീഴിത ഷാസചയയങ്ങൾ മഭച്ചമെടുത്തുന്നതിനും മഭാത്തത്തിലുള്ള കുടുുംഫ ലക്ഷ്ഭത്തിൽ ഭാറ്റും മകാണ്ടുഴരുന്നതിലുും ഇത്തയും കുെിലമറ്റും ഒരു പ്രധാന ഩങ്ക് ഴസിക്കുന്നു. ലകയലത്തിൽ കുെിലമറ്റത്തിൻമര ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ആഘാതങ്ങമലക്കുരിച്ച്, പ്രലതയകിച്ച് ഗൾപ് യാജയങ്ങലിലറക്കുള്ള കുെിലമറ്റത്തിമന കുരിച്ച് ഴിപുറഭാമ ഗലഴശണങ്ങൾ നെന്നിട്ടുണ്ട്. എന്നിരുന്നാലുും, കെൽ ഭത്സ്യമത്താളിറാലികൾ ലഩാലുള്ള ഩാർവവഴൽക്കയിക്കമെട്ട ഷമൂസങ്ങൾക്കിെമിമറ കുെിലമറ്റും മൂറും ഉണ്ടാമിട്ടുള്ള ഷാമ്പത്തിക ഷാമൂസിക ചുറ്റുഩാെിൽ ഴന്ന ഭാറ്റങ്ങമല കുരിച്ച് പ്രലതയക ശ്രദ്ധ ലകന്ദ്രീകയിക്കുന്ന ഩഠനങ്ങൾ ഩയിഭിതഭാണ്. കുെിലമറ്റക്കാരുും കുെിലമറ്റക്കായല്ലാത്തഴരുഭാമ കുടുുംഫങ്ങൾക്കിെമിമറ ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ഷഴിലവശതകൾ, കുെിലമറ്റത്തിലറക്ക് നമിക്കുന്ന നിർണ്ണാമക ഘെകങ്ങൾ, കുെിലമറ്റ യീതികൾ, ഴരുഭാന അഷഭതവും എന്നിഴ ഩയിലവാധിചുകിമകാണ്ട് ഈ ഴിെവകൾ ഩയിസയിക്കാനാണ് ഈ ഩഠനും റക്ഷ്യഭിടുന്നത്. 375 ഴീടുകലിൽ നിന്ന് ലവഖയിച്ച പ്രാഥഭിക ഡാറ്റയുും, ഷഭഗ്രഭാമ ഒരു ഩഠനത്തിനാമി ദവിതീമ ഡാറ്റയുും ഉഩലമാഗിച്ച്, ലകയലത്തിമറ ഭറപ്പുരും ജില്ലമിമറ ഷമുദ്ര ഭത്സ്യമത്താളിറാലികൾക്കിെമിൽ ഗൾപ് യാജയങ്ങലിലറക്കുള്ള കുെിലമറ്റും മചലുത്തുന്ന ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ഷവാധീനും ഈ ഗലഴശണും ഩയിലവാധിക്കുന്നു. മഭച്ചമെട്ട ജീഴിത ഷാസചയയങ്ങൾ, ഴിദയാബയാഷും, ഷാമ്പത്തിക സ്ഥിയത എന്നിഴമിലൂമെ കുെിലമറ്റും കുടുുംഫങ്ങളുമെ ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക സ്ഥിതി ഗണയഭാമി മഭച്ചമെടുത്തിമിട്ടുണ്ട്. കുെിലമറ്റക്കായല്ലാത്ത കുടുുംഫങ്ങൾ ഷാമ്പത്തിക അസ്ഥിയത, ഷാമൂസിക-ഷാമ്പത്തിക ഴലർച്ചയ്ക്കുള്ള ഩയിഭിതഭാമ അഴഷയങ്ങൾ എന്നിഴ ലനയിടുന്നു. കുെിലമറ്റ ഭത്സ്യമത്താളിറാലി കുടുുംഫങ്ങൾക്കിെമിൽ ഴർദ്ധിച്ച ഴരുഭാന അഷഭതവവും ഩഠനും എടുത്തുകാണിക്കുന്നു. ഷാമ്പത്തിക ലഷഴനങ്ങൾ ഴികഷിെിക്കൽ, ഭത്സ്യകൃശി ലപ്രാത്സ്ാസിെിക്കൽ, സ്ത്രീ ഩങ്കാലിത്തും മഭച്ചമെടുത്തൽ, കമ്മ്യൂണിറ്റി ഴിദയാബയാഷ ഩയിഩാെികലിലൂമെ അഴലഫാധും ഴലർത്തൽ എന്നിഴ നമ ശുഩാർവകലിൽ ഉൾമെടുന്നു. CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION  Introduction  Significance of the Fishing Industry  Socio-Economic Conditions of Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala  Statement of the Research Problem  Significance of the Study  Research Questions  Objectives of the Study  Hypotheses  Analytical Framework  Data and Methodology  Scheme of the Study  Limitations of the Study Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction The ocean, with its vast ecosystem, plays a crucial role in shaping the economic, social and cultural lives of people worldwide. Its boundless marine resources not only support the delicate balance of our planet’s ecosystem but also serve as a vital source of livelihood for millions. For coastal populations, particularly marine fisherfolk, the ocean is not just a source of livelihood but a way of life. Fishing remains their primary occupation, deeply tied to the natural environment they depend on. These communities face unique challenges, navigating uncertainties brought by climate change, environmental degradation and economic pressures. Marine fisherfolk, being resource-dependent, often struggle to adapt to the shifting dynamics of marine ecosystems and limited opportunities for alternative livelihoods. As Ellis and Allison (2004) highlight, access to natural resources like fisheries and land plays a critical role in the economic upliftment of marginalised groups. For fisherfolk, sustainable use of marine resources is vital to securing their lives and improving their socio-economic conditions. Building on the profound connection between the ocean and coastal communities, fisheries stand out as a key sector, particularly for marine fisherfolk. Fisheries, categorised alongside agriculture and allied activities are one of the most promising sectors and hold immense importance for fisherfolk communities. Fishing refers to the activity of capturing or harvesting aquatic organisms, primarily fish, from water bodies such as oceans, rivers and lakes, using various tools and techniques like nets, rods and trawlers. In marine fisheries, this practice takes place in the vast expanse of the oceans, where fisherfolk engage in fishing to sustain their families and communities (NOAA ,2006). For marine fisherfolk, the ocean is not just a source of livelihood, but an integral part of their identity and culture. The Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO, 2004) defines fishing communities as those heavily reliant on fish-related activities for their sustenance and economic stability. In addition to food production, the industry creates employment opportunities in related sectors such as fish processing, marketing and logistics, as well as in shipbuilding, equipment manufacturing and tourism. This interconnected system Introduction 2 provides economic stability to coastal societies while promoting social cohesion. However, the delicate balance between marine ecosystems and the livelihoods they support highlights the importance of adopting sustainable practices. The depletion of marine resources disrupts the balance of coastal ecosystems, threatening both biodiversity and the livelihoods of fisherfolk who depend on these resources. The decline in marine biodiversity reduces fish populations, impacting the livelihoods of fisherfolk and weakening the resilience of marine ecosystems. This results in unstable fish stocks and economic uncertainty as fisherfolk face difficulties in maintaining their income. Overfishing worsens the situation by increasing pressure on the remaining species and speeding up the degradation of ecosystems. This creates a chain reaction where the loss of key species disrupts predator-prey relationships, leading to further depletion of fish populations. Economically, fisherfolk face more competition for fewer resources, fluctuating incomes and the risk of social instability. Overfishing of large fish and shellfish was the first major human impact on coastal ecosystems, causing significant biomass loss and near extinction of large species. These changes occurred before modern ecological studies and were often linked to European colonisation and traditional overfishing practices. Later disturbances like pollution, habitat destruction, diseases, invasive species and climate change have worsened the impact of overfishing which further destabilising the marine environment (Stachowicz et al.2007; Jackson et al. 2001). Research by Rubekie et al. (2022) shows that the decline in marine resources and changes in fishing conditions are driving fisherfolk to migrate in search of better opportunities. This shift is driven by the need to adjust to the challenges of a changing environment prompting fisherfolk to adopt different survival strategies to secure their livelihoods. 1.2 Significance of the Fishing Industry Fish and fisheries play a crucial role in supporting the health, well-being and economic stability of societies worldwide. As a fundamental component of many economies, fisheries contribute significantly to food security and livelihoods. In 2020, global fisheries and aquaculture achieved a record production of 214 million Introduction 3 tonnes, comprising 178 million tonnes of aquatic animals and 36 million tonnes of algae. Fisheries are broadly categorised into capture fisheries and aquaculture, which are further divided into marine and inland fisheries based on their source of production. Of the 178 million tonnes of aquatic animals produced in 2020, capture fisheries contributed 90 million tonnes (51 percent), while aquaculture accounted for 88 million tonnes (49 percent). Marine fisheries dominated global production, contributing 112 million tonnes (63 percent), with capture fisheries providing 70 percent of this total and aquaculture 30 percent. In comparison, inland fisheries produced 66 million tonnes (37 percent), where aquaculture was the primary contributor at 83 percent and capture fisheries accounted for 17 percent. The global production of marine capture fisheries was heavily influenced by the performance of the top seven producing nations, which accounted for over half of all marine captures in 2020. China led the production, contributing 14.9 percent of the global total, followed by Indonesia (8.2 percent), Peru (7.1 percent), the Russian Federation (6.1 percent), the United States of America (5.4 percent), India (4.7 percent) and Vietnam (4.2 percent) (FAO, 2022). Future projections indicate a moderate increase in global capture production, particularly in regions where sustainable resource management practices are effectively implemented. The substantial share of marine fisheries in global production emphasises their critical role in ensuring food security, supporting coastal livelihoods and driving economic development in coastal regions, particularly in resource-dependent communities. Fishing is a decisive livelihood activity for many coastal communities, particularly in low-income regions. It provides employment in fishing, processing and related services, while significantly contributing to food security. Fish are a critical source of essential micronutrients such as omega-3, vitamin A and iron. Fishing livelihoods are diverse and adaptable to changing environmental, economic and climatic conditions. Generally, fisheries are broadly categorised into large-scale and small-scale operations. Large-scale fisheries, often part of marine or capture fisheries, typically involve larger vessels equipped with advanced technologies like trawlers and purse seines. These operations are usually labour intensive, relying on wage labour or compensation based on the catch value. In contrast, small-scale Introduction 4 fisheries, also within marine or capture fisheries, are more labour intensive, using smaller vessels and simpler gear, such as handlines or manually pulled nets and operating closer to shore. These fisheries are often managed by individuals or small groups within coastal villages. While small-scale fishers predominantly sell their catch in local markets, many also participate in export activities. Beyond work in fishing alone, many livelihoods are based around, partly or in whole, the diverse activities along the value chain of seafood processing, marketing, trading, boat and gear construction, servicing vessels and so on (Fabinyi & Barclay,2022). According to FAO (2022), an estimated 58.5 million people were employed in fisheries and aquaculture in 2020, either full-time, part-time, occasionally or in unspecified roles. Of this workforce, approximately 21 percent were women. In terms of sectoral distribution, 35 percent were engaged in aquaculture, while 65 percent worked in capture fisheries. The global importance of the fisheries sector has rebounded in India, where it serves as a cornerstone for coastal and rural communities. It provides essential support to local livelihoods and significantly contributes to national economic growth through seafood exports. With an extensive 8,118-kilometer coastline, enriched by estuaries, backwaters and lagoons, the country offers unparalleled opportunities for capture and culture fisheries. Currently, India is the third largest fish-producing country in the world and accounts for 7.96 per cent of the global production. The sector has been one of the major contributors to foreign exchange earnings, with India being one of the leading seafood exporting nations in the world. In 2022-23, the export improved in quantity terms by 26.73 per cent. India is also a major producer of fish through aquaculture and ranks second in the world after China (Kerala State Planning Board, 2024). In 2022, region-wise estimates of marine fish landings in India showed that the southwest region, including Kerala, Karnataka and Goa, reported the highest contribution with 1.43 million tonnes, representing 41% of the national total. The southeast region followed with 0.99 million tonnes (28%), while the northwest and northeast regions recorded 0.75 million tonnes (22%) and 0.32 million tonnes (9%), Introduction 5 respectively. The marine fisheries sector in Kerala recorded the highest catch of the last decade with 6.87 lakh tonnes in 2022. A significant increase of 24% was noted against the previous year’s landings of 5.55 lakh tonnes (Gopalakrishnan,2023). The significance of the fishing industry is reflected in its role in supporting livelihoods, generating foreign exchange and contributing to economic growth. As India continues to manage and expand its marine resources, the fisheries sector remains integral to both the national economy and the well-being of its communities. In Kerala, the economy flourishes through its strong ties to agriculture and allied sectors, with marine fish production standing out as a major contributor. With a coastline of 590 kilometers and a continental shelf area of 39,139 sq.km, the region is uniquely positioned along the productive Arabian Sea, making it one of the most prominent maritime areas in the country. The sector has evolved into a dualistic structure, encompassing a traditional segment rooted in ancestral fishing practices and a modernised segment characterised by technological advancements and increased efficiency (Louis et al., 2019). This duality reflects its adaptability and critical role in supporting the socio-economic framework. The importance of the fisheries sector is evident from its substantial contributions to fish production at both national and regional levels. According to the Annual Report (2022-23) by the Department of Fisheries, Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying, total fish production in India for 2021-22 stood at 162.5 lakh metric tons (MT), with 41.27 lakh MT contributed by the marine sector. Kerala played a vital role in this, contributing 6.9 lakh MT of marine fish production and 2.29 lakh MT of inland fish production during 2022-23 (Kerala State Planning Board, 2024). This significant share highlights the prominent role of Kerala in the fisheries landscape of India. Beyond production, the fisheries sector in Kerala has become a crucial source of foreign exchange earnings, supporting the economic stability of the state. Additionally, it plays a prominent role in enhancing nutritional security by supplying affordable, protein-rich food, thereby addressing both economic and food security challenges. Fisheries have also become a vital source of foreign exchange, boosting economic resilience while addressing nutritional security. The fishery-related Introduction 6 livelihoods are complex, dynamic and adaptive. The fisherfolk population is estimated to be around 10.6 lakh, which is around 3.2 per cent of the total population of Kerala. The total fisherfolk population includes 8.15 lakh belonging to the marine sector and 2.45 lakh belonging to the inland sector. They reside in 222 marine fishing villages and 113 inland fishing villages of the State (Kerala State Planning Board, 2024). In addition to income generation, the sector empowers coastal communities, fosters rural development and strengthens local economies. It also preserves cultural identity, as fishing communities continue to uphold traditional knowledge and practices despite modernisation. With the rising global demand for seafood, the fisheries sector presents opportunities for sustainable development and economic growth, ensuring its continued importance in meeting both livelihood and food security needs. 1.3 Socio-Economic Conditions of Marine Fisherfolk in Kerala The state of Kerala gained worldwide attention and distinguished itself from other Indian states due to the Kerala model of development. The model, distinguished by its unique emphasis on human development over traditional economic growth, has positioned the southwestern Indian state as an exceptional case study. Kerala has achieved remarkable social indicators despite facing challenges like limited economic expansion, that defy the norms of development paradigms. But when referring to the Kerala model of development, about the overall social development achieved by Kerala, the critics argued that different marginalised communities are considered outliers of the model (Kurien, 1995). The marine fisherfolk community is considered as the most vulnerable section of the society and the socio-economic backwardness is the hallmark of the fisherfolk community. The sector provides employment and livelihood to lakhs of the population in Kerala at the same time they are socially and economically lagging behind the mainstream society. Rajan (2002) finds that the socio-economic circumstances of fishermen in Kerala have not improved much in a century of endeavors at fostering the fishing industry. Fishermen have had difficulty in achieving corresponding occupational diversification, although modernisation in the Introduction 7 fishing sector has brought about structural changes and opened up new work opportunities. The socio-economic status of marine fisherfolk in Kerala is shaped by several challenges and vulnerabilities, mainly due to their reliance on traditional fishing methods and the depletion of marine resources. Over the years, the marine fisheries sector has experienced significant changes, particularly between 1950 and 2014, driven by globalisation. The introduction of mechanised trawlers and the involvement of innovative ventures have transformed the fishing industry, leading to three distinct phases of evolution. Initially, fishing served as the sole livelihood for many communities during the pre-modernisation phase (before 1950). This was followed by the modernisation phase (1950-1990), which introduced improved fishing techniques through the Indo-Norwegian Project. However, the post- modernisation phase (1990 onwards) has brought new challenges, including overfishing and increased conflicts within the industry (Rajan, 2001; Rajan & Pillai, 2020). Despite the importance of the sector to the economy, marine fisherfolk face persistent socio-economic hardships. A large proportion of this community is engaged in small-scale, artisanal fishing, which results in low and uncertain incomes. This dependency on fishing exposes them to the volatility of fish prices and environmental changes, further complicating their economic situation. Additionally, most fisherfolks live in coastal villages with limited access to basic infrastructure, such as proper housing, sanitation and healthcare. The lack of modern fishing technologies and limited skill development opportunities prevents many from improving their productivity and income potential. They also deal with issues related to ownership, access and conservation of resources (Devi & Pavithran, 2018). While some households rely solely on fishing, others supplement their income through low-paying and unstable activities, such as net-making, fish marketing and working as labourers. Moreover, generally low educational levels of the community contribute to a cycle of poverty and limited social mobility. Other socio-economic challenges include high dependency ratios, exploitation by Introduction 8 intermediaries, widespread debt and limited access to financial resources (Sunitha, 2019). These factors compound the struggles faced by marine fisherfolk, reinforcing their socio-economic vulnerabilities. 1.4 Statement of the Research Problem The socio-economic conditions of marine fisherfolk in Kerala are increasingly vulnerable due to the compounded impacts of climate change, overfishing and environmental degradation. The depletion of marine resources, coupled with the increasing frequency of extreme weather events such as rising sea levels and storms, has significantly damaged the sustainability of traditional fishing practices (Barange et al., 2018). Additionally, the instability in freshwater and marine environments, due to changes in precipitation and sea temperature, has disrupted fish populations, impacting the livelihoods of coastal communities (Badjeck et al., 2010). While global fishery resources continue to be exploited at unsustainable rates, with many stocks overexploited or depleted, the livelihoods of fisherfolk are placed at greater risk. Which further leads to exacerbated food insecurity and economic vulnerability (Hanjra, 2013). Although there have been some improvements in health and literacy rates among fishermen, they still struggle with low pay, seasonal work and disguised unemployment. And the high costs of maintaining their way of life, along with issues like overfishing, juvenile fishing and declining fish stocks, continue to create hardships (Salim et al., 2017). The changing climate, along with natural disasters and overfishing, has resulted in declining fish catches, creating worsening conditions for fisherfolk in Kerala. This downward trend has led to uncertain income, disguised unemployment and significant depletion of fish resources. In response to these challenges, fishermen are forced to adopt various strategies to improve their living conditions. Many of them have diversified their income sources into sectors like commerce, farming, labour and services to improve their quality of life. Their coping methods focus on livelihoods and include mobility, diversification, storage, communal pooling and market exchange (Sunitha, 2019). By venturing into non-fishery industries, some fishermen can better withstand the Introduction 9 challenges of the fishing sector. Consequently, many fisherfolks have turned to migration to Gulf countries as a means of securing better livelihoods, transforming this strategy into a vital lifeline for communities facing environmental and economic pressures (Rajan & Pillai, 2020). Furthermore, the migration of fishermen to new areas in response to resource fluctuations is another example of how livelihoods can adapt to changes in the natural environment. As Badjeck et al. (2010) note, diversification whether through multiple job sources, career changes or targeting different species has enabled fishing communities to better cope with natural resource variability and the impacts of climate change. Fisherfolk migration refers to the temporary or sometimes permanent movement of fishers to distant fishing grounds or camps, often for periods ranging from a few weeks to several months (Wayanoyi et al., 2016). This form of migration, particularly to the Gulf countries, has become an essential strategy for fisherfolk to overcome economic hardships, improve living conditions and secure better incomes. In Kerala, migration, especially to Gulf countries, has become an essential survival strategy for many, with remittances flowing back into the state, particularly benefiting households in regions like Malappuram. Migrant households have seen notable improvements in their income and asset accumulation, which have significantly contributed to reducing poverty in the region (Prakash, 1998). Malappuram district in Kerala sets a classic example in the context of migration, particularly the prominent role it plays in the flow of remittances. This district, a hub for emigration to Gulf countries, has experienced a significant transformation in its socio-economic fabric. The state also holds a prominent position in terms of its marine fisherfolk population and the number of active fishermen (Rajan & Zachariah,2019; Directorate of Fisheries,2022). Many individuals from this community have opted for migration as a way to achieve better livelihoods. Studies in this area identify significant research gaps concerning migration and its impacts on marginalised communities, particularly marine fishermen. Despite studies focusing on the general socio-economic effects of migration, the specific challenges and benefits for vulnerable groups such as the fisherfolk have been Introduction 10 underexplored. There is a significant lack of analysis concerning the impact of migration on the livelihood vulnerabilities of marine fisherfolk, concerning income and expenditure disparities between migrant and non-migrant households. To address these gaps, current research utilises relevant theoretical frameworks to examine how migration functions as a survival strategy for marine fisherfolk in Malappuram District. The study aims to investigate the socio-economic characteristics of the marine fisherfolk community in the region and explore the factors that drive them to migrate. It also assesses the socio-economic impacts of migration and analyses income and expenditure inequalities among migrant and non-migrant fisherfolk households. Through this comprehensive analysis, the research seeks to provide valuable insights into the experiences of fisherfolk communities who have undergone migration, ultimately contributing to a better understanding of their struggles and resilience. 1.5 Significance of the Study The significance of this study lies in its potential to fill the critical gaps in understanding the socio-economic dynamics of marine fisherfolk communities in Malappuram district, Kerala. Focusing on this district, which has the highest number of emigrants and remittances (Rajan & Zachariah, 2019) and is notable for its substantial marine fisherfolk population and significant number of active fishermen in the state (Directorate of Fisheries,2022), the research addresses the unique challenges faced by fisherfolk, who often experience heightened vulnerabilities compared to other populations. This study aims to provide insights into how migration serves as a survival strategy for these communities. It also examines the impact on their socio-economic status and seeks to explore the pattern and determinants behind the migration of marine fisherfolk. The study aims to analyse the income and expenditure inequalities between migrant and non-migrant fisherfolk households. By identifying these disparities, the research can highlight the economic benefits and challenges associated with migration, offering insights into how remittances contribute to the financial stability of fisherfolk families. This study aims to fill critical gaps in the existing literature on migration and provide new insights for policymakers and stakeholders. By focusing on the specific needs of the marine fisherfolk in Malappuram, the research aims to facilitate effective Introduction 11 interventions and support systems to enhance their livelihoods and promote sustainable development. 1.6 Research Questions The marine fisherfolk community in the Malappuram district faces innumerable challenges, including declining fish stocks, climate change and economic instability, disguised unemployment, inadequate housing, limited healthcare and education opportunities. Unfavorable conditions have driven many to seek better livelihoods through migration to Gulf countries, which offer the promise of a better standard of living. However, the underlying reasons for migration and its broader impact on the socio-economic conditions of marine fisherfolk remain underexplored. Migration provides financial relief via remittances but also creates disparities between migrant and non-migrant households in terms of income and expenditure. This study aims to examine these issues by addressing the following research questions: 1. What are the reasons and motives driving the migration of the marine fisherfolk in Malappuram district? 2. What are the income and expenditure inequalities between migrant and non- migrant fisherfolk households? 3. How does migration affect the socio-economic conditions of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district? 1.7 Objectives of the study The specific objectives of the study are as follows: 1. To analyse the socio-economic characteristics of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. 2. To understand the pattern and determinants behind the migration of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. 3. To analyse the income and expenditure inequality between migrant and non- migrant fisherfolk households. Introduction 12 4. To examine the impact of migration on the socio-economic status of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. 1.8 Hypotheses A hypothesis is a tentative statement that predicts a relationship or difference between variables and serves as the basis for statistical testing. The key hypotheses of this study aim to explore income variations among migrants based on education and occupation, as well as expenditure disparities between migrant and non-migrant households 1. H0: There is no significant difference in the mean income among migrants based on their educational qualifications. 2. H0: There is a significant difference in the mean income among migrants based on their occupation. 3. H0: There is no significant disparity in expenditure between migrant and non-migrant households. 1.9 Analytical Framework Migration is a kind of geographic or spatial mobility between two geographical entities, usually requiring a change of domicile from the origin to the destination country (UN, 1958). Migration is often circular, with people returning to their home communities regularly and maintaining close connections. This ongoing exchange shows that migration is much more than a single event, it is a vital part of how home communities grow and develop. Furthermore, migration is a household strategy that shapes and perpetuates the most unfavourable socio-economic conditions (McDowell & Haan, 1997; Haan, 2002). It is seen as one of the strategies that households and communities use to sustain their livelihoods and diversify their income, Manage risks and support their well-being.It serves as a way to buffer incomes during difficult times and to achieve personal aspirations and it can vary from short-term moves to permanent relocation (Singh & Basu, 2020). Introduction 13 Figure 1.1: Sustainable Livelihood Framework (SLF) Source: Developed by the Researcher based on the DFID Sustainable livelihood Framework, 2000; Rajan and Pillai,2020 Introduction 14 Migration is influenced by several factors, including a household’s abilities (like family size, education and social connections), the assets they have, personal goals and external pressures such as increased climate variability, job opportunities and proximity to towns and cities. People who depend heavily on climate-sensitive jobs, such as fishing and farming are particularly at risk from the effects of climate change, especially those living in vulnerable areas like coastal regions, river basins and semi-arid zones. For these households, migration becomes a crucial strategy to diversify their income and reduce the risks associated with the impacts of severe climate change (Maharjan et. al,2020). According to the British Department for International Development (DFID, 2000), sustainable livelihoods are characterised by their ability to survive and recover from external shocks and stresses, such as economic fluctuations or environmental disasters. They aim to minimise reliance on external assistance, prioritising economic and institutional sustainability. Central to their sustainability is the responsible stewardship of natural resources to ensure their long-term productivity without compromising future generations. Additionally, sustainable livelihoods operate within ethical frameworks, ensuring that their practices do not harm or diminish the livelihood opportunities of others, thereby fostering fairness and inclusivity in development efforts (Chambers & Conway, 1992). A livelihood involves the capabilities, assets (including stores, resources, claims and access) and activities necessary for a means of living. A sustainable livelihood can withstand and recover from stresses and shocks, maintain and enhance its capabilities and assets and provide sustainable livelihood opportunities for future generations (Chambers & Conway, 1992). The concept of livelihood integrates factors crucial to the vulnerability or resilience of individual or family survival strategies. It includes the assets of people, the activities they undertake to achieve a satisfactory standard of living and other objectives like risk management and the various facilitators or barriers that affect access to these assets and activities. Livelihoods are fundamentally shaped by the resources individuals possess, their Introduction 15 economic activities and the socio-economic conditions influencing their ability to secure sustainable livelihood outcomes (Allison & Ellis, 2001). The Sustainable Livelihood Approach (SLA) enhances understanding of the livelihoods of impoverished communities by elucidating the key factors and relationships that influence their survival strategies. The framework identifies five main types of livelihood assets: natural, physical, financial, human and social capital. Natural capital includes resources like land and biological diversity. Fish provide a crucial source of protein and essential nutrients for many people worldwide. Preserving fish biodiversity is essential for sustaining fisheries, ensuring these communities can continue to meet their nutritional needs with fish as a primary food source(Meinam et al., 2023). Fishers in coastal areas rely heavily on the marine ecosystem, yet they report no significant change in fish populations over the past decade, though some acknowledge increased fishing intensity. Physical capital refers to infrastructure and equipment. Fishers typically own sturdy houses with electricity and mobile phone coverage. Public amenities such as schools, healthcare facilities and places of worship are accessible. The majority of fishers possess essential fishing gear and boats, which are crucial for their livelihood. Financial capital involves income and savings. Most fishers close to the coastline own at least one boat, ensuring the highest return from each catch. However, they lack access to grants and formal financial institutions for savings and loans. Instead, they invest their earnings in fishing gear, with some maintaining bank accounts. During off-peak seasons, fishers often seek alternative income sources, such as unskilled labour, to meet daily needs. A few engage in small businesses, selling fishing equipment or rice. Human capital includes health, education and labour skills. Fishers generally lack skills beyond fishing, with a small number having business acumen. The health and education levels within these communities vary, but the ability to work is vital. Similarly, social capital involves formal and informal networks that provide support and resources. Membership in formal fishing societies offers benefits like financial aid during emergencies, access to soft loans, training opportunities and fishing gear. Non-members rely on informal groups to Introduction 16 maintain social ties and support. Environmental awareness among fishers is limited. While they recognise seasonal variations in fish stocks, they are less aware of broader environmental impacts. Access to clean water is generally adequate, even for those living close to the coastline, which can be challenging in other regions. (Pratiwi et al., 2022). The natural resources of the sea are conceptualised as common property or open-access resources. This means that marine resources are not subject to exclusive property rights and are freely accessible. Consequently, fishing becomes highly competitive and the basic assets upon which fishing relies become extremely vulnerable to overfishing and subsequent depletion. The depletion of the seabed and juvenile fishing further worsen the issue. Therefore, effective fisheries management is crucial to resolving this problem (Meynen,1989). In these vulnerable conditions, fisherfolks have adopted different livelihood strategies to reduce their vulnerability. By utilising their resources and accumulated marine knowledge, some fishermen are reducing risks and enhancing their quality of life. They go on lengthy fishing excursions outside of their territorial waters, which, although potentially lucrative, exposes them to hazardous weather conditions. They do this by combining this knowledge with contemporary tools like GPS and echo sounders. Another risk- reduction tactic being used by some educated young people from fishing households is diversification into non-fishing-related industries (Rajan & Pillai,2020). A significant decline in fishing opportunities affects various aspects of the lifestyles and living conditions of local communities. Consequently, many youths migrate in search of employment opportunities (Jonsson, 2019). 1.10 Data and Methodology The study is based on both primary and secondary data. Primary data was collected from 375 households in Malappuram District using a pre-structured questionnaire. Secondary data was obtained from various sources, including the Kerala Marine Fisheries Census (2020 and 2012), Economic Review (2024, 2023, 2022 and 2021), Kerala Fisheries Statistics at a Glance (2022, 2021 and 2020), Introduction 17 Kerala Migration Survey (2018), Fisheries Handbook (2023), reports from Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), research articles, journals and edited books. 1.10.1 Primary Data According to the Department of Fisheries & CMFRI (2020), Malappuram district consists of 15,962 fisherfolk families with a total population of 96,018 individuals. Using Cochran’s formula for determining sample size, a total of 375 individuals was selected for the study to ensure statistical reliability and representativeness of the sample. Unlimited Population n = 𝑧2∗𝑝(1−𝑝̂) 𝑒2 Finite Population: 𝑛′= 𝑛 1+ 𝑧2 ∗𝑝̂(1−𝑝̂) ⅇ2𝑁 Where, n = Sample size for an infinite population and 𝑛′= sample size for a finite population z = Level of confidence (95% confidence level is approximately1.96) e = desired level of precision (5 percent=0.05) p = population proportion N = Population size Malappuram district holds significant importance in the state due to its highest number of migrants and its leading position in the number of fisherfolk households (Rajan & Zachariah,2019; Department of Fisheries & CMFRI,2020). Data was collected from selected fishing villages using a pre-structured questionnaire to examine the socio-economic impact of migration on these communities. The Interview Schedule, which was canvassed, had eight blocks: (a) Household identification particulars, (b) Details of members in the household (c) Household details, (d) Details about fisherfolk in the household, (e) Migration trend, Introduction 18 (f) Details about return migration, (g) Factors influencing migration (h) Socio- economic impact of migration. General information was collected for the identification of the sample households (which includes household number, district, town/taluk, village and name of the informant). Under details of members in the household, data on relation to the head, sex, age, marital status, educational qualification and occupational status of each member of the household were collected. Household details include ration cards, income details, housing conditions, land, livestock, financial assets, vehicles, modes of communication, consumer durable goods, details on loans and other liabilities and expenditure details. The details about the number of fisherfolk in the family, the ownership of craft, the mode of craft and occupational diversification are coming under details about the fisherfolk in the household block. Migration particulars, viz., Marital status and age at the time of migration, educational qualification, migration destination, duration of stay and occupation before and after migration are given under trends of migration. The details about the return migrant in the family are given under details about the return migrant block. Under the block factors influencing migration the main reasons of migration, cost of migration and details about student migration were collected. In the last block, the details about remittances, the utilisation of remittances, benefits of remittances and changes of durable assets before and after migration were collected. 1.10.2 Pilot Study A pilot study was conducted in the fishing taluks of the Malappuram district, specifically in the fishing villages of Puduponnani, Korman Kadappuram and Alungal Beach. A total of 187 households were selected for this preliminary investigation, aimed at assessing the prevalence of migration within the study area and its potential impact on the socio-economic conditions of the households. The pilot study was undertaken to measure the feasibility of the proposed research and to determine whether migration plays a significant role in shaping the socio-economic dynamics of the fisherfolk community. The pilot study revealed that a significant Introduction 19 number of households in the area had members who had migrated (86 Households), highlighting the widespread prevalence of migration. This finding reinforced the importance of the proposed research, as migration emerged as a key factor influencing household socio-economic conditions. Consequently, the pilot study confirmed that a full-scale investigation into the socio-economic impact of migration within these fishing communities is both relevant and feasible. Additionally, based on the pilot study results, unnecessary questions were removed and those needing further clarification were revised for greater clarity. This process allowed the researcher to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of the data collection tool, enhancing its validity and reliability. As a result, the final version of the questionnaire became more refined, ensuring its suitability for capturing accurate and relevant data for the study. 1.10.3 Sample Selected for the Study A sample of 375 households was collected using a multistage random sampling procedure during a survey conducted between September 2023 and January 2024. In the initial stage, the taluks of Ponnani, Tirur and Tirurangadi were selected, as they include the marine fisherfolk population of Malappuram District. Malappuram District comprises 23 fishing villages, which are coastal settlements primarily inhabited by marine fisherfolk. In the second stage, two fishing villages with the highest concentration of fisherfolk were identified from each taluk, Puduponnani and Thekkekadavu from Ponnani Taluk, Korman Kadapuram and Paravanna from Tirur taluk and Alungal Beach and Parappanangadi from Tirurangadi taluk were selected. These villages were chosen to capture a comprehensive representation of the socio-economic conditions of the marine fisherfolk community. Introduction 20 Table 1.1 The Sample Selected for the Study Taluk Fishing Villages Total Sample Migrant Household Non-Migrant Household Ponnani Puduponnani 56 26 31 Thekkekadavu 41 19 22 Tirur Kormankadapuram 75 35 40 Paravanna 75 34 41 Tirurangadi Alungal Beach 64 29 35 Parappanangadi 64 29 34 Total 375 172 203 Source: Department of Fisheries & CMFRI,2020 A total of 375 samples were randomly selected from each fishing village, with the sample size determined proportionally based on the fisherfolk population in each village. This proportional allocation ensures that the data collected accurately represents the population distribution across the selected villages. For analysing the socio-economic impact of migration, the study includes both migrant and non- migrant households. Only those households with at least one member having a minimum of one year of migration experience have been included in the category of migrant households and those individuals who have moved to gulf regions for employment purposes have been included under the migrant category. Households with no emigrant members and any of the members who are engaged in fishing or related activities are considered as non-migrant households (Christopher,2022). Out of 375 households 172 are migrant households and 203 are non-migrant households. The respondents for the study were the migrant members or the eldest available household members at the time of data collection. 1.10.4 Statistical Tools and Econometric Models Used In this study, a variety of statistical tools and econometric models were utilised to analyse the data. Descriptive statistics such as percentage, mode and median were employed to summarise key variables and provide an overview of the data. The t-test (Paired and independent sample), chi-square test, multiple linear Introduction 21 regression model, Pearson’s correlation and ANOVA were applied to examine relationships and differences between groups. To specifically analyse the impact of migration, the Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) and the Ordered Probit model were used. These methods together offer a comprehensive approach to exploring the socio-economic impact of Gulf migration on the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. For the analysis, software such as the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) and Stata were used. To enhance the robustness of the analyses, the Central Limit Theorem (CLT) served as a guiding principle. The CLT asserts that, as sample size increases, the sampling distribution of the sample mean approaches a normal distribution, irrespective of the original distribution of the population (Kwak & Kim, 2017). This foundational concept justifies the use of normal distribution-based statistical methods. 1.10.4.1 Validation for the First Objective A thorough investigation was undertaken to address the first objective of analysing the socio-economic characteristics of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram District. To examine this objective, both migrant and non-migrant marine fisherfolk are considered. Migrant marine fisherfolk are individuals from the marine fishing community who have relocated from their place of origin to the Gulf regions in search of better employment opportunities, higher income and improved socio-economic conditions. Non-migrant marine fisherfolk are those who have remained in their original communities and continue engaging in traditional marine fishing activities within their local regions. The eldest member from each of the migrant households, who migrated to the Gulf countries, was identified as the migrant marine fisherfolk. Similarly, the eldest member from each of the non- migrant households engaged in fishing was identified as the non-migrant marine fisherfolk. The study socio-economic profile of marine fisherfolk, including variables such as age (Continuous variable), gender ( Categorised as Male and Female), family size (Categorised as below 5 members, 6 to 10 members, 11 to 15 members and above 15 members) and marital status (Categorised as married, unmarried, Introduction 22 widow/widower and divorced), house ownership, type of house(luxury, very good, good, poor and kutcha), total land holding (Categorised as no land, below 5 cents, 5- 10 cents, 11-15 cents, 16-20 cents and above 20 cents), ration card ownership, type of ration card (white, blue, pink and yellow), access to cooking, water and bathroom facilities. For analysing income and expenditure patterns, the study used data on the monthly income and expenditure of households from all sources. Savings habits and debt were explored by identifying whether households had savings or debts. For measuring livelihood diversification, two indices were employed, the Ogive Index and the Simpson Diversity Index. The Ogive Index was used to measure the concentration of sectoral activities within the community, calculated using the formula: Ogive index =∑ (𝑆𝑖−1/𝑁)2 1/𝑁 𝑁 𝑖=1 The index assesses how concentrated or dispersed a variable is across units in a dataset. In this coastal economy, N represents the number of economic sectors, while Si denotes the sectoral share of economic activity. If the distribution is equal across N sectors, then Si equals 1/N. In this case, the Ogive index equals zero, indicating perfect diversity. When there exists an unequal distribution of sectoral activity, the result of the ‘Ogive index’ will be higher (Biswas & Mallick, 2021). The Simpson Diversity Index (SID), which assesses the variety of occupations, was calculated as: Simpson Index (SID)=1- ∑ 𝑛(𝑛𝑖−1)𝑠 𝑖=1 𝑁(𝑁−1) In the coastal economy, N represents the total number of income sources, S denotes the number of activities and ni refers to the number of individuals participating in each specific income source or activity. The Simpson Diversity Index (SID) takes a value between 0 and 1. When the SID approaches 1, it signifies an increase in livelihood diversification. Conversely, a SID value of 0 indicates complete specialisation in a single income source (Biswas & Mallick, 2021). Introduction 23 Together, these indices provide insights into the economic dynamics of the community, highlighting occupational concentration and diversity among migrants and non-migrants. The pattern of occupation (fishing, allied activities, driver, shopkeeper and others like business, accountant, fitness trainer, engineer, construction work and household worker) is also used to identify livelihood diversification. The pattern of education among them is analysed using educational status (Literate without school education, SSLC and below, Plus Two, Degree, PG and others such as professional certificate courses and technical education). Also, this detailed analysis offered a comprehensive understanding of the socio-economic conditions of the marine fisherfolk community, highlighting significant differences between migrant and non-migrant households across multiple socio-economic dimensions. 1.10.4.2 Validation for the Second Objective To understand the pattern and determinants behind the migration of the marine fisherfolk community in the Malappuram district, graphs, percentages, cross- tabulations and multiple linear regression were employed. Cross tabulations were used to identify patterns and relationships between pre-migration characteristics such as age at first visit, marital status at the time of migration, family size, occupation and their influence on the factors (push and pull) that lead to migration. This method provided insights into the most common factors driving migration within this community. A multiple linear regression (dependent variable: duration of total stay, independent variables: Age at first visit, marital status, debt and family size) is employed to estimate the major determinants of duration of long stay. The general equation for multiple linear regression using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) is: 𝑌𝑖 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑋1𝑖+𝛽2𝑋2𝑖+…+𝛽𝑘𝑋𝑘𝑖+𝑢𝑖 Where Y is the dependent variable, 𝑋1, 𝑋2 … 𝑋𝑘 Are the explanatory variables (or regressors), u represents the stochastic disturbance term and i denotes the i th observation. OLS analysis also includes Weighted Least Squares (WLS) to improve Introduction 24 the efficiency of estimates in cases of heteroscedasticity or unequal variances. WLS assigns different weights to observations based on the variance of errors, helping to reduce bias and provide more reliable regression coefficients by addressing non- constant variance. By assessing the strength and direction of these relationships, this analysis offers a complete understanding of the key motives influencing the migration decisions of marine fisherfolk. 1.10.4.3 Validation for the Third Objective To assess income and expenditure inequality between migrant and non- migrant fisherfolk households, a comprehensive analysis was conducted using advanced statistical methods, focusing on monthly income and expenditure as the primary variables. The Lorenz curve was employed to measure income disparity, providing a graphical representation of the income distribution within the community. In this curve, the diagonal line represents perfect equality, where every household would have the same income. The Lorenz curve for the fisherfolk households lies below this line, illustrating the presence of income inequality. The Gini coefficient, derived from the Lorenz curve, offered a quantitative measure of income inequality. In general, Gini coefficients range from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality). In addition to this, an ANOVA test was also employed to measure if there is any significant difference between income and occupation, income and expenditure among migrants. For expenditure inequality, the independent t-test was used to compare the average expenditure between migrant and non-migrant households. This test provided statistical evidence of differences in spending patterns, revealing that migration may lead to significant changes in expenditure behaviour among households. To understand what are the determinants of expenditure among the marine fisherfolk community, a multiple linear regression model (Dependent variable: total expenditure, independent variables: Migration status, family size, income and Age) was used. The general form of the multiple linear regression equation using Ordinary Least Squares (OLS) is: 𝑌𝑖 = 𝛽0 + 𝛽1𝑋1𝑖+𝛽2𝑋2𝑖+…+𝛽𝑘𝑋𝑘𝑖+𝑢𝑖 Introduction 25 Where Y denotes the dependent variable, 𝑋1, 𝑋2 … 𝑋𝑘 are the explanatory variables (or regressors), u is the stochastic disturbance term and i mean the i th observation .OLS analysis includes Weighted Least Squares (WLS) to address heteroscedasticity by assigning weights based on error variance, improving estimate efficiency and reliability.An independent t-test was also used to analyse whether there is a significant difference in various types of expenditures, such as food, non- food, medical, education and others, between migrant and non-migrant households. By combining these methods, the analysis provided thorough validation of the objective, offering both visual and statistical insights into the inequality present in income and expenditure among marine fisherfolk households. 1.10.4.4 Validation for the Fourth Objective The fourth objective was to assess the impact of migration on the socio- economic status of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. To analyse the socio-economic impact of migration, two approaches were used: Inter analysis (comparing migrant and non-migrant households) and intra-analysis (examining migrant households). For Inter analysis an ordered probit regression model was employed to examine the impact of migration on the socio-economic status of the marine fisherfolk with the use of Stata software. The ordered probit model is applied when the dependent variable is ordinal, meaning it has a clear, ordered set of categories, but the intervals between categories are not necessarily uniform. The general form of the ordered probit model expresses the latent variable as a function of independent variables and a coefficient vector. 𝑦𝑖 ∗ = 𝛽′𝑋𝑖 + 𝑢𝑖 where 𝑋𝑖 represents the vector of independent variables (migration status, income, education and occupation), β is the vector of coefficients and 𝑢𝑖 is the error term, assumed to follow a standard normal distribution (Gujarati & Porter,2008).Since the latent variable 𝑦𝑖 ∗ is unobservable, the model estimates the probability that an individual falls into a particular category based on the cut-points 𝑇𝑗 . The probability of being in category j is calculated as: Introduction 26 𝑃𝑖𝑗 = 𝑝(𝑦𝑖 = 𝑗) = 𝑝(𝑢𝑗−1 < 𝑦𝑖 ∗ ≤ 𝑢𝑗)=𝐹 (𝑢𝑗 − 𝛽′𝑥ⅈ)- 𝐹 (𝑢𝑗−1 − 𝛽′𝑥ⅈ) In ordered probit models, F represents the cumulative distribution function (CDF) with a standard normal distribution. In these models, 𝑃𝑖𝑗 is the probability that an individual falls into category j. It is calculated using the difference between cumulative probabilities of the latent variable 𝑦𝑖 ∗ falling within specific thresholds. The dependent variable in this model is the current socio-economic status of respondents, measured on a three-point Likert scale: low, middle and high. The independent variables (such as migration status, income, type of house, education and occupation) influence these probabilities and their effect is measured through changes in the linear combination of coefficients and variables. In the model, which deals with j alternatives, each alternative has its own set of marginal effects. These effects represent the impact of changes in independent variables on the probabilities of selecting different outcomes. The marginal effects of each variable across the alternatives sum up to zero, meaning that an increase or decrease in a particular independent variable affects the probability of selecting a specific alternative j by a certain percentage (Salisu, 2017). To evaluate the impact of migration within migrant households (Intra analysis) cross-tabulations, paired sample t-tests and correlations were employed. The variables considered include pre and post-migration type of house, land ownership, savings, debt and the amount of remittances and income. This detailed approach helps to validate the crucial role migration plays in enhancing the socio- economic conditions of the coastal community. In this chapter, a Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) was developed to evaluate and compare the livelihood sustainability of both migrant and non-migrant households. Sustainable livelihoods refer to the ability of individuals and households to meet their essential needs and improve their quality of life in a way that is resilient to external shocks, adaptable to changing circumstances and mindful of preserving the natural resources they rely on (Nasrnia & Ashktorab, 2021). Introduction 27 Table 1.2 Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) Components Capital Indicator Data type Human Capital (HC) Level of education General family health Level of education of respondent (Literate without school education , SSLC and Below, Plus two, degree, PG and Others,) Total number of sick family members Physical Capital (PC) Type of House Fishing boat owned Type of house (Categorised as Luxury , Very good , Good , Poor and Kutcha) Number of fishing boats owned Social Capital (SC) Participation in non- governmental cooperation Political Participation Kudumbasree /Ayalkoottam (Yes or No) (Political Participation: Yes or No) Financial Capital (FC) Income Remittances Saving Monthly income (Rs) Receiving remittances (Yes or No) Saving (Yes or No) Natural Capital (NC) Land livestock Total land owned Number of livestock Source: Developed by the Researcher based on primary survey, 2024 For each indicator, values were normalised using the min-max method to ensure comparability across different scales. Standardised Value= Actual Value−Minimum Value Maximum Value−Minimum Value Equal weights were then applied to each capital and the SLI was calculated by averaging the normalised values of the indicators within each capital category. Equal weighting in composite indices is preferred for promoting fairness, as it ensures all indicators contribute equally, preventing any single factor from dominating. This method is useful when the relative importance of indicators is uncertain, providing a balanced representation without subjective bias (Greco et al, 2019). Therefore, the index values come in the range between 0 and 1. While zero means the perfect negative situation and one means the perfect positive situation. A movement from 0 to 1 means a favourable situation in this index. Each group of the index was derived from specific indicators, ensuring a comprehensive assessment of Introduction 28 the overall livelihood sustainability of the households. The individual indices can be presented separately to illustrate the performance across different capital categories. Subsequently, the aggregated measure of the SLI provides a holistic view of the family’s livelihoods, enabling meaningful comparisons between different households and insights into the factors contributing to their sustainability. The Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) categorises sustainability into three levels, low (0 to 0.49), moderate (0.50 to 0.69) and high (0.70 to 1). This framework evaluates the resilience and resource accessibility of migrant and non-migrant households within the marine fisherfolk. To analyse the association, a cross-tabulation was performed between the Sustainable Livelihood Index (SLI) and migration status, between SLI and socio-economic status among marine fisherfolk. 1.11 Scheme of the Study The study is organised into seven chapters as follows: Chapter I: Provides the general context, significance of the study, statement of the problem, objectives and hypotheses. It also outlines the analytical framework, briefly discusses the methodology and highlights the scope and limitations of the study. Chapter II: Defines key terms, presents the theoretical framework and provides a review of the literature. Chapter III: Discusses the background of the study, highlights the significance of the fishing industry and the socio-economic conditions of marine fisherfolk in Kerala. It also covers migration and its socio-economic impact at global, national and regional levels, as well as the adoption of migration as a survival strategy for marine fisherfolk. Chapter IV: Presents the socio-economic profile of marine fisherfolk (both migrant and non-migrant) in the Malappuram district. Chapter V: Examines the pattern and determinants of migration among the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. Introduction 29 Chapter VI: Investigate income and expenditure disparities between migrant and non-migrant marine fisherfolk households. Chapter VII: Analyses the impact of migration on the socio-economic status of the marine fisherfolk in the Malappuram district. Chapter VIII: Summarises the major findings of the study and presents the conclusion. 1.12 Limitations of the study This study aims to examine the socio-economic effects of migration within the marine fisherfolk community. However, it is essential to recognise its limitations, which may influence the interpretation and broader application of the findings. Addressing these limitations can pave the way for future research that explores these dynamics in greater depth. 1. The focus on marine fisherfolk excludes non-fishing communities affected by migration. 2. The study focuses only on the Malappuram district, limiting the applicability of findings to other areas. 3. The research does not explore the role of gender or the specific impact of migration on women within the fisherfolk community. 4. The cross-sectional nature of the study prevents an in-depth analysis of long- term socio-economic changes resulting from migration. CHAPTER 2 CONCEPTUAL ISSUES AND EMPIRICAL STUDIES  Introduction  Basic terms used in this study  Theoretical Review  Empirical Review  Research Gap Conceptual Issues and Empirical Studies 31 2.1 Introduction This chapter offers a detailed examination of key concepts, perspectives and insights from both theoretical and empirical studies related to migration and marine fisherfolk. It focuses on migration trends from Kerala to the Middle East, major destination for migrants from the region, analysing the factors influencing this movement and its socio-economic implications for individuals and communities. The discussion also addresses the socio-economic conditions of marine fisherfolk communities in Kerala. Further, the analysis explores how migration functions as an important livelihood strategy for coastal households. The chapter integrates theoretical and empirical evidence to provide a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between migration and development within the coastal fisherfolk community. 2.2 Basic terms used in this study The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA, 2006) provides several key definitions related to aquatic ecosystems and fisheries management: Aquaculture is the farming of aquatic organisms, including fish, mollusks, crustaceans and aquatic plants, with some form of intervention in the rearing process to enhance production, such as regular stocking, feeding and protection from predators. Farming also implies individual or corporate ownership of the stock being cultivated. The term fish collectively refers to mollusks, crustaceans and other aquatic organisms harvested for consumption or commercial purposes. Fish stock denotes the population of fish within a defined geographic area that is available for capture in a fishery. It represents the exploitable living resources utilised for subsistence or economic gain. The fishery includes systems involved in harvesting fish, including wild capture and aquaculture. It is defined by the target species, geographic area, fishing methods and associated vessels. A fishery also reflects the interaction between fish Conceptual Issues and Empirical Studies 32 and fishers within a specific region. Fishing involves any activity, excluding scientific research, aimed at capturing or harvesting fish, including actions leading to such outcomes and related operations at sea. Fisher is a gender-neutral term used to refer to an individual, regardless of gender, who is involved in fishing activities within a fishery. Fisherfolk is a collective term used to refer to individuals or communities engaged in fishing activities, typically encompassing both fishermen and fisherwomen, as well as their families and associated workers within the fishing industry. The fishing community comprises individuals and groups dependent on harvesting or processing fishery resources for social and economic needs. This includes vessel owners, operators, crew members, recreational fishers, processors, gear suppliers and others engaged in fishing-related activities. Fish stock depletion describes fish populations that are significantly reduced due to overfishing, resulting in diminished reproductive capacity and spawning biomass. Recovery requires robust rebuilding measures, which are influenced by the extent of depletion, conservation efforts and environmental conditions. A Migrant household is defined as a household that has experienced any form of migration, whether internal or international, at any point in time. Gulf migrants are individuals who have moved to one of the six Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) countries: UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Qatar, Bahrain and Oman. Other migrants refer to those who have migrated to different regions within the country or to other parts of the world. If no members of a household have migrated elsewhere, that household is classified as a non-migrant household (Shibinu,2016). International migration is the movement of persons away from their place of usual residence and across an international border to a country of which they are not nationals. An international migrant is any person who is outside a State of which they are a citizen or national or in the case of a stateless person, their State of birth or habitual residence. The term includes migrants who intend to move permanently Conceptual Issues and Empirical Studies 33 or temporarily and those who move in a regular or documented manner as well as migrants in irregular situations. (IOM,2019). Immigration is the act of moving into a country other than one's country of nationality or usual residence, where the destination country becomes the individual’s new usual place of residence. It focuses on the arrival in the destination country. Emigration is the act of leaving one’s country of nationality or usual residence to settle in another country, where the destination country becomes the individua’s new usual place of residence. It focuses on the departure from the origin country (IOM,2019). Juvenile fishing refers to the practice of targeting young fish that have not yet reached sexual maturity. This type of fishing can be detrimental to fish populations as it may lead to the capture of fish before they have had the opportunity to reproduce, potentially hindering the sustainability of the species. Labour migration is the movement of persons from one state to another or within their own country of residence, for employment. A low-skilled migrant worker is a migrant worker whose level of education, occupational experience or qualifications make them eligible to practice a typically low-skilled occupation only (IOM,2019). Marine describes waters that do not receive freshwater input from land and maintain a salinity above 30 practical salinity units (PSU) year-round, characteristic of oceanic conditions. Marine fishing involves harvesting fish and other aquatic organisms from oceans or seas, encompassing both commercial and recreational activities (Lockwood,2002). A marine fisherman is a person (male/ female/LGBTQ) who is engaged in marine fishing or any other activity associated with marine fishery or both . Actual Fishing means the adult members in the family engaged in fishing activities full- time or part-time and the adult members in the family engaged in the marketing of fish, making or repairing nets, etc. Fishermen family means a family in which at least one member is engaged in marine fishing or associated activities or both. And a Conceptual Issues and Empirical Studies 34 household is defined as consists of a person or a group of persons, who live together in the same house (CMFRI &Dof,2020). Overfishing occurs when fish are harvested before reaching their optimal growth stage, reducing their contribution to the overall biomass. This practice depletes the stock to a level that hinders achieving the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) (Lockwood,2002). A vulnerable group is any group or sector of society (such as children, the elderly, persons with disabilities, ethnic or religious minorities, migrants, particularly those in an irregular situation or persons of diverse sex, sexual orientation and gender identity (SSOGI) that is at higher risk of being subjected to discriminatory practices, violence, social disadvantage or economic hardship than other groups within the State. These groups are also at higher risk during periods of conflict, crisis or disaster (IOM,2019). 2.3 Theoretical Review Human migration is a multifaceted phenomenon that has been extensively studied through various theoretical lenses, each offering unique insights into the socio-economic impacts on countries and communities. This theoretical review aims to explore the diverse range of theories that have been developed to explain the drivers of migration, the processes involved and the effects on both sending and receiving regions. Migration is broadly defined as a permanent or semi-permanent change of residence. The drivers of migration are influenced by factors present both at the point of origin and the destination. Migration is often motivated by a combination of push and pull factors, alongside a set of intervening obstacles. Push factors are those that compel individuals to leave their place of origin, such as poverty, unemployment or a lack of opportunities. On the other hand, pull factors are the conditions that attract individuals to a new location, such as better job prospects, higher wages or an improved quality of life. In the context of marine fisherfolk, push factors might include the seasonal and unpredictable nature of fishing as a livelihood, while pull factors could involve the more stable economic opportunities offered in Gulf countries (Lee,1966). Conceptual Issues and Empirical Studies 35 The Neoclassical Economic Theory, the macro level model explains t