CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE Dissertation submitted to the University of Calicut for the award of the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE by INDULEKHA K. R. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT NOVEMBER 2018 CERTIFICATE This is to certify that the dissertation entitled CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE, submitted to the University of Calicut in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Language and Literature, is a bona fide work carried out by Indulekha K.R., under my guidance and supervision. Neither the dissertation nor any part of it has been submitted for the award of any degree, diploma or title before. Dr. K M Sherrif Associate Professor and Head Department of English University of Calicut University of Calicut Countersigned by Head of the Department INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. DECLARATION I, Indulekha K.R. hereby declare that the dissertation entitled CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE, submitted to the University of Calicut in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in English Language and Literature, is a bonafide work done by me under the guidance of Dr. K.M .Sherrif, Associate Professor, Department of English, University of Calicut , and that I have not submitted it or any part of it for any degree, diploma or title before. University of Calicut, Indulekha K.R. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give my sincere gratitude to my supervising teacher, Dr. K.M.Sherrif, Associate Professor, Department of English, University of Calicut. It is my privilege to work with a man of scholarship and integrity whose valuable advice, critical suggestions and constant encouragement made me completed this challenging task within the stipulated time. Most respectfully, I thank him, for his benevolent and scholastic guidance. My thanks are also due to all other members of the department’s faculty. I would like to thank all the ministerial staff of the department and the library staff, especially, Dr. V.M.Vinod, Assistant Librarian, CHMK Library, University of Calicut for his creative insight. My special thanks go to Vijayan Panicker, Shameema, Srividya, Shajil , Amal and Aparna for their generous support. All the teachers and students, who participated in the survey, were highly supportive and co-operative, I thank them, too. My deep sense of gratitude goes to the staff of Bina Computers, Villunjiyal for their technical assistance. I am grateful for my parents who provided me with the prerequisite life experiences to successfully engage in all my academic endeavours. I also appreciate my husband, Dr. Akhil.R.Krishnan who constantly showers moral support and encouragement. Affectionately, I thank my little son, Anjan Shiva. This dissertation would not have been possible without the encouragement and support from many of my friends and family. I thank them all. Indulekha K R Dedicated to The children who are rebuilding their lives after 2018 August flood CONTENTS Page No. INTRODUCTION 1-9 CHAPTER I 11-34 ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDIA AND KERALA: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW CHAPTER II 35-65 ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDIA AND KERALA: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW CHAPTER III 67-112 THE CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECONDARY EDUCATION: KCF 2007 AND 2013 PRAXIS CHAPTER IV 113-184 DATA ANALYSIS CHAPTER V 185-192 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY 193-216 APPENDICES LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS Communicative Language Teaching CLT Contrastive Analysis CA Critical Pedagogy CP English East India Company EIC English as Foreign Language EFL English Language Teaching ELT English as Second Language ESL Grammar Translation Method GT Method Multiple Intelligence MI Second Language L2 National Curriculum Framework NCF National Knowledge Commission NKC Kerala Curriculum Framework KCF Second Language Acquisition SLA Universal Grammar Model UG Model World War II WWII Zone of Proximal Development ZPD INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. INTRODUCTION i. A Brief Outline of the Study Human existence in its every discourse is inseparably intertwined with the construction of knowledge. However, the idea that knowledge is constructed and not simply transmitted is a comparatively recent development. The epistemological and ontological premises of Positivism rely on objective observation and the measurement of research phenomena as central to the process of research. In positivist paradigm, “… the world and the universe are deterministic; they operate by laws of cause and effect that are discernable if we apply the unique approach of the scientific method. Deductive reasoning is used to postulate theories that can be tested”(Krauss 760). It totally denies the role of subjectivity based on different settings and social contexts in the derivation of knowledge. Post-positivism, as a critique to the philosophical foundations of positivism, assumes that reality is not a fixed entity. It is constructed or reconstructed based on the social/individual experiences. The ontological assumption of post-positivism posits that the process of knowledge derivation cannot be independently realised within the context of social conditioning. Post-positivist ideology is rooted in the works of Max Webber, the German sociologist, which collectively recognise that social realities are to be addressed in totality from the subjective perspective. Since the social world can be addressed by acknowledging its inherent multiplicity and plurality, post-positivism stresses the need for reflexivity in research and identifies the role of researcher as an interpreter (Gattone 32). The dynamics of knowledge requires intellectual leap-ups in tune with the demands of contemporary world. It was generally assumed that the 1 purpose of knowledge was to represent an independent reality. The scientific advancements in Physical sciences also questioned the validity and reliability of ‘truth’ by arguing that knowledge can only represent a closer approximation to the truth. The knowledge system or belief system is referred to as paradigm shift. This term was first used by the American philosopher Thomas Kuhn to denote the radical shift in knowledge system in Physics/Material Science. The concept of paradigm shift can be considered as a periodic revolution. Kuhn believed that science does not progress in linear mode of knowledge accumulation. But it undergoes periodic revolutions or paradigms. He introduced the term ‘paradigm shift’ in his seminal work, The Structure of Scientific Revolution in 1962. The term paradigm denotes pattern formations in which we generate meanings, beliefs etc. The old paradigms are replaced with new paradigms. Grounded on evolution theories, the contemporary biological science also asserts that knowledge has an adaptive function rather than a representation of reality. Kuhn’s philosophy of science acknowledges the relevance of all scientific knowledge at the backdrop of social production. He is inspired by the renowned American-German anthropologist Franz Boas’s presupposition that there is no outside scale against which to measure the development of distinct human cultures. His philosophy of science is based on a distinctive sociological assumption in which the concept of scientific evolution is treated as a social institution (Tresch 307, Polsby 122-125). These innovative and intellectual discourses influence the methodological change in the epistemology of research which marks a theoretical shift from ‘quantitative to qualitative’ research. 2 The British academician Michael observed: The qualitative research has been done at different stages of human sciences(education, social work), paradigms( film, cultural studies), research strategies (participatory-active research, case study, grounded theory) and data collection techniques (interviews, observation and analytical technique). (qtd. in Wiesenfeld 3) The qualitative research also incorporates the theoretical assumption of Constructivism that human beings construct knowledge by making sense of the world. Developed as a theory of learning over the last four decades of the twentieth century, constructivism mainly emanates from the cognitive school of the Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget and the socio-cultural school of the Soviet psychologist, LevVygotsky. Most of their works in this area appeared during 1930s. Focused on the process of knowing and the nature of cognition, constructivists postulate that people actively construct new knowledge in an effort to make sense of their surroundings. Being a qualitative study in approach, the present study deals with the constructivist paradigm in the area of English Language Teaching and how the paradigm shift is materialized in English classrooms. The second quarter of the twentieth century was marked by a paradigm shift from functionalism to structuralism. Structuralism promoted behavioural sciences and tried to approach Linguistics as a discipline in the behaviourist paradigm. Language learning got mechanised in this paradigm. During the 1960s, the onset of transformationalism again germinated the mentalistic propositions (cognitive interactionist approach) in language learning. Despite its predominance with first language acquisition theory, chomskyan approach perceived language learning as a generative process. 3 The development of Applied linguistics as a full-fledged discipline made tremendous changes in the field of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) (Mukalel “Approaches” 33-41). The functional aspect of language got immense currency with the adoption of communicative approaches in language teaching. The major paradigm shift in SLA can be seen as a larger shift from Positivism to Post- positivism. The major components of the new paradigm can be elaborated here: a. Learner autonomy The concept of learner autonomy fits with the overall paradigm shift because it emphasises the role of the learner more than that of the teacher.It focuses on the process rather than the product and encourages students to develop their own purposes for learning and to see learning as a lifelong process. b. Cooperative Learning As an umbrella term, cooperative learning promotes students’ interaction and participation in the process of learning. Students are motivated to learn things by developing positive interdependence and mutual trust among themselves. c. Curricular Integration The students get more opportunities to approach subjects from different perspectives by integrating varied subjects in the curriculum. It helps them to get a better grasp of subjects. d. Thinking Skills Thinking skills are used as learning strategies to obtain information wisely. They involve the higher-order thinking skills like critical and creative thinking. 4 e. Focus on Meaning The socio-cognitive psychology stresses that people learn by chunking new information with existing knowledge and that meaning plays a key role in forming those chunks. f. Diversity It recognises the diversified learners in terms of individual differences and different socio-economic backgrounds. Intelligence is not treated as a monolithic entity in the new paradigm. The relevance of multiple intelligence theory is used to engage the diversified learners. g. Alternative Assessment The new assessment instruments are supposed to mirror the real-life situations. Portfolio assessment techniques and peer assessment are used in it. h. Teachers as Co-Learners The teacher is the centre of classrooms in traditional paradigm. The teacher is the custodian of knowledge. The new paradigm sees knowledge production as a collective attempt. The teacher can raise the conscious level of students by asking critical questions (Jacob and Farell 2-3). ii. Significance of the Study This study focuses on the paradigm shift in English Language Teaching at the secondary level across Kerala in the first decade of the 21st century. Based on National Curriculum Framework 2005 (NCF2005), Kerala Curriculum Framework 2007 (KCF 2007) was implemented in government/government-aided schools which followed the state syllabus. This framework was based on the pedagogical practices of constructivism. The pedagogical practices of constructivism assert that learning and meaning 5 making can be achieved through active engagement with knowledge and interaction. After Independence, structuralist methodology dominated English classrooms in India. After 1990s, the dominance of structuralist practices in English classrooms was questioned by ELT theoreticians. Behavioural paradigm is considered to be an obsolete practice in the Post-structuralist world in which meanings are viewed as in a state of constant flux. The post-1990’s curricular reforms like DPEP (District Primary Education Programme) promoted and practised discourse-oriented pedagogy in English classrooms at the primary classes of Kerala. KCF 2007 also suggested and promoted cognitive-interactionist approach in English classrooms.The present work which uses both quantitative and qualitative techniques is largely a qualitative work by nature. iii. Statement of the Problem Based on the NCF 2005, KCF 2007 introduced a new approach to English teaching at the secondary level. Though this investigator is not teaching English at the secondary level, she has been closely observing and participating as a resource person for secondary school teachers. As a young teacher, this investigator welcomes this paradigm shift as a step in the right direction. KCF 2007 envisioned dynamic as well as learner-friendly English classrooms having critical learners. The traditional system of education viewed learning as transmission of knowledge. The new curriculum viewed production of knowledge as a collaborative activity. The observed progressive views of constructivist curriculum raised serious questions and apprehensions among the academic society. This made the researcher examine whether the academic shift had been accomplished or not. To put this felt need to constructive use, this researcher delved and deeper into the issues related to the efficacy of the new paradigm 6 and tried to explore and interpret the efficacy of the constructivist curriculum and how far these constructive strategies in ELT could become a means of introducing a new learning culture among the students and teachers in Kerala. iv. Research Design The qualitative research paradigm is grounded within the theoretical orientations of post-positivism, critical theory and constructivism. This kind of research can be employed effectively in a situation in which multiplicity of classroom discourses and complexities of student identities are addressed. Individual experience gets importance in qualitative research. Qualitative research is an inductive research which does not begin with hypotheses but seeks to develop insights out of the given data. The formulation of research questions marks the beginning of qualitative research. These research questions are aimed at collecting information on the research problem. The following research questions are below: a. What are the difficulties faced by teachers and students in the process of implementing the new paradigm? b. What kind of classroom strategies and other techniques are implemented in teaching English? c. How far is the new paradigm shift viable / visible in classroom practices? v . Organization of the Thesis This thesis is divided into five chapters. The first chapter, entitled ‘The ELT Scenario in India and Kerala: A Review’, discusses the historical background of English education in India. Since the present work takes place in Kerala, an overview of English language education in India needs to be analysed to understand the context. The first sub-division mainly focuses on 7 the historical evolution of English education through pre-independent, nationalist movement and post-independent times. This chapter examines how the position of English is consolidated through colonial policies like Charter Act, Macaulay’s Minutes and Woods Despatch. During the period of nationalist discourses, the mother tongue education was promoted by nationalist leaders like Gandhiji. A brief historical sketch of ELT in India is presented in the second subsection. The third subsection is a historical account of how English education becomes a catalyst in the transformation of Kerala’s Modernity. The second chapter entitled ‘The Constructivist Paradigm in Second Language Learning’ gives an account of the major theoretical approaches to ESL. The first subsection describes the major methods employed in foreign language teaching during the nineteenth and early twentieth century. The second subsection deals with major theoretical underpinnings of ESL. The third subsection is about constructivism and its different theoretical orientations which include Piaget’s individual constructivism and Vygotsky’s social constructivism. The third chapter entitled, ‘The Constructivist Paradigm in Secondary Education: KCF 2007 and KCF 2013 Praxis’, is divided into two parts. The major methodological shift from behaviourism to constructivism in the present scenario is explained in the first section. The textual analysis of Secondary English textbooks of KCF 2007 and KCF 2013 including textual content, treatment of grammar, vocabulary and different discursive practices are in the next subsection. It tries to elaborate how the constructive paradigm is incorporated in textbooks, handbooks and the evaluation system. The fourth chapter entitled, ‘Data Analysis’ is an exclusive chapter which discusses the fundamental research methods, techniques and tools employed in this work. Being a qualitative research by nature, the present 8 work needs a qualitative survey among teachers and students, semi-structured interviews from stakeholders, field visits, direct observation and visual records etc.All the questions administered to both teachers and students with corresponding responses in percentage are presented in detail. The second part of this chapter entitled ‘Interpretation’ is a collective analysis of the questionnaires by using other research tools like field notes, interviews etc. It generally touches upon the positive changes, implementation flaws and some of the problematic elements in the theoretical framework. The last chapter entitled ‘Summary and Conclusion’ is about the findings of this study. . 9 INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. CHAPTER I ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING IN INDIA AND KERALA: A HISTORICAL OVERVIEW 1.1 Early English Education in India The introduction of English in India has always been a subject of heated debates and political controversies. From the beginning of eighteenth century, English was initially used only in the trade centers. The ‘dobashees’ or interpreters in commercial markets were the first users of English in India (Ayyar11).The growth of British commerce was interrelated with the growth of English in India. Persian was the court language of the Mughals, when the colonizers arrived in India. In 1774, the Supreme Court in Calcutta decided to transact its business only in English. This was the first major official action that definitely consolidated the supremacy of English over Indian/Classical languages (King 53-58). With the introduction of the Charter Act of 1813 and the liberal attitude towards missionaries popularized the importance of imparting English education to the Indian masses. The missionaries to India used Christianity as a cultural tool to regenerate the ‘depraved’ India. Their ‘civilizing mission’ was accelerated by the policies of Charles Grant and Alexander Duff. Both of them thought that it was their imperial responsibility to disseminate English education to the colonies. This colonial attitude culminated in the fissure between the Anglicists (those who advocated education in English) and the Orientalists (those who insisted on traditional education in the classical languages). 11 This linguistic deadlock between the factions of the Orientalists and the Anglicists made things difficult for the East India Company (EIC). The Anglicists favoured the view that only English could enrich and improve vernacular languages. The Orientalists insisted on the view that only classical languages could enrich and improve the vernacular languages. William Bentinck who became the Governor General in 1828 appointed Macaulay as the President of the Committee of Public Instruction in order to solve the problem. This decision paved the way for Macaulay’s Minutes of February 1835. It was known as the ‘Manifesto of English Education in India (Krishnaswamy and Lalitha Krishnaswamy 30). As a trusted official of the colonial administration, Macaulay needed a class of ‘English-knowing Indian elites’. It was generally perceived that such western-educated Indian bureaucrats would be loyal to the colonial power. His Minutes clearly stated its objectives: We must at present do our best to form a class who may be interpreters between us and the millions whom we govern a class of persons, Indians in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect. To that class we may leave it to redefine the vernacular dialects in the country, to enrich those dialects with terms of science borrowed from Western nomenclature and to render them by degrees fit vehicles for conveying knowledge to the great mass of population (qtd. in Aggarwal 11). A point to be noted here is that the ongoing Dalit discourses on English in India takes a cyclical trajectory by recognizing knowledge of English itself as social/cultural capital (Prasad94). Though this document contains no reference to the downtrodden/untouchables, it can be seen as a gateway to their emancipation by blaspheming the caste-ridden, pseudo- 12 scientific and hierarchical knowledge system of India. The nineteenth century social reformer Savitribhai Phule wrote a small poem entitled “Mother English” which was considered to be the earliest expression of a Dalit’s passionate thirst for English (Raghavan 125). The Dalits thought that the acquisition of English as a means of social mobilization in a globalized world. While coming to the historical phase, English education became more urban - oriented with the establishment of universities. Many English medium schools were established nearby those universities. Since English stood as a symbol of freedom, modernity, and superiority during the nineteenth century, many well-bred young men wanted a more liberal and enlightened system of education by learning English. Commenting on this, Gauri Viswanathan observes: Because of the extraordinary costs in training and recruiting teachers of English, a complete education that began with a thorough study of English was within the reach of only a very small proportion of Indians. But even though only this class would receive an English education, their more important function would be to act as teachers and translators of useful books through which they would communicate to the native literature and native community that improved spirit. They had imbibed from the influence of European ideas and sentiments. (149) Meanwhile, the ‘national consciousness’ was raised among the Indians and many Indians expressed their thoughts against the foreign rule through different organizations. The Swadeshi Movement of Indian national movement advocated the growth of the vernaculars as the medium of education. This movement emphasized Indian control over education. Mahatma Gandhi considered English as one of the means of our enslavement 13 and wanted the country to break free of the shackles of linguistic slavery. He preferred English only for international communication. He advocated a basic education system which never included English as a subject in its curriculum. The Hartog Committee of 1929 concentrated more on organizational matters of the education system. Sir Philip Hartog, the Chairman of the Committee observed that English should be a compulsory Second Language in the interest of India, as pointed out by the Calcutta University Commission. The Abbot-Wood Committee Report of 1937 recommended that the mother tongue should be the medium of instruction throughout the high school class but insisted on the teaching of English as a compulsory language. The WWII broke out and the colonial government was busy with its own war politics. Meanwhile, Mahatma Gandhi took the initiative to convene a conference of educationalists to throw light on a new scheme of education meant to be indigenous. This conference eventually led to the constitution of another commission headed by Dr. Zakhir Hussain. The Zakhir Hussain Committee Report of 1938 laid stress on the teaching of the mother tongue as part of the curriculum. Since many nationalist discourses viewed English education as a way of linguistic slavery, there was a lot of confusion in policies of English Education during those years. Immediately after World War II, The Sargent Report was submitted in 1945. This report recommended that English should not be introduced as an optional subject in basic schools. 1.2 The Post Independence India After Independence, language became the most intimate and sensational index of one’s identity. The question of ‘national language’ emerged among the multi-lingual terrain of the newly formed ‘centralized nation state’ of India. The Constituent Assembly of India indicated the 14 significance of English in India. During 1950s, English was adopted as the ‘link language’ for India. The Secondary Education Commission (1952-53), headed by Sri Lakshmana Mudaliyar, recommended: a. The mother tongue or the regional language should be the medium of instruction throughout the secondary school stage, with special facilities for linguistic minorities. b. Every child should be taught at least two languages during the middle school stage. c. English and Hindi should be introduced at the end of the junior basic stage. The Official Language Commission’s Report was accepted in 1958. It recommended that English would be replaced by Hindi after 1965, and English would continue only as a subsidiary language. The proponents of Hindi wanted to place Hindi as the official language. The southern states and Bengal argued for the retention of English. In 1963, the Lok Sabha again raised the question of India’s official language. The Three Language Formula, an official education policy on language, recommended: a. The learning at primary school of the regional language or mother tongue. b. The study of Hindi or any other Indian language in Hindi speaking areas. c. The learning of English or any other foreign language. The University Education Commission headed by Dr.S.Radhakrishnan argued for the removal of English as a medium of instruction and state 15 language. The ambivalent nature of this report focused on the idea that English could no longer be the national language, but on the other hand, it was a global language or a window to the world. Article 343 (1) of the Constitution provided English as the official language of the Union up to 1965. Although English was not listed in the Schedule VIII of the Constitution, it was given the status of the associate language for a period of 15 years. The Constitution of India stipulated that Hindi would be the Official Language.The reorganization of states was completed by mid fifties and early sixties. English continued as a link language along with Hindi, with due stress on it in higher education (Chaudhary 44-46, Krishnaswamy and Lalitha Krishna swamy ch 4). It is quite often noted that language and identity have a symbiotic relationship. English education was one of the key elements of the language debates that had taken place over the decades in India. English education in Post Independence India acted not only as a mere pedagogic practice but also adapted its position in the nationalist discourse of appropriating English in ‘Indian contexts’. The Kothari Commission Report viewed education as a means of social integration. It emphasized that education had to be reshaped to meet new challenges; it had to be used as a tool for the realization of national aspirations (GOI, 1966 4). The Kothari Commission of 1966 did not refer to the medium of instruction. It discussed the problem of language in the complex linguistic fabric of India. The commission recommended that regional language should be developed and used increasingly at the higher levels and English would be continued as the medium of instruction. It was subtitled ‘Education and National Development’. This was the first national policy document which pointed to ‘the increasing social visions, the widening gulf between rich and 16 poor, urban and rural, educated and uneducated, privileged and underprivileged (GOI, 1966 9). Meanwhile, K.N.Kunjru Commission Report of 1965 recommended the following: a. The change from English to an Indian language as the medium of instruction and the state universities should not be hastened. b. That where English is not the medium of instruction at any university, it is necessary to adopt special methods to secure an adequate knowledge of English as a second language. c. That is our educational interest that English should be retained as a properly studied second language in our universities, even when an Indian language is used as the ordinary medium of teaching. (39) The National Policy on Education 1968 observed that special emphasis needed to be laid on the study of English and other world languages. As the world of knowledge grew at a tremendous pace, the English study deserved special attention. English was issued as a Library Language. This report celebrated the increased importance of regional languages. It advocated the three language formula as a compromise to balance between Hindi and non- Hindi clash. The study group report (on the teaching of English) of 1971 aimed at outlining a practical programme of action to improve the teaching of English at both school and university stages. It recommended the use of English as a’ source language ‘with a view to enriching regional language and also advocated that translation could be taught as a specialised skill only at the intermediate and advanced stage of language teaching. (Chaudhary 46- 50). In 1976, NCERT suggested English should be taught from class VI in all states. The National Policy of Education 1986 was published after much debate on its draft proposals. It continued to emphasize the importance of 17 regional languages as the medium of instruction. It also suggested that English remained the door to overseas jobs and social mobility (Khan 172- 176). The Acharya Ramamurti Commission was appointed to review NPE 1986 and the Programme of Action (POA) submitted its report in 1990. This report probed into the implementation problems of language policies in Indian curriculum. The report made specific recommendations about the steps to be taken to effect a smooth change over from English to the regional languages. It observed that the last linguistic survey of India was carried out from 1898 to 1928 and stated the need for a fresh linguistic survey under the new socio- political circumstances (Amritavalli 222-224). 1.3 English Language Teaching in India- A Review As Pennycook, the distinguished writer, observes: Colonial language policies can be seen as constructed between four poles: first, the position of colonies within a capitalist empire and the need to produce docile workers and consumers to fuel capitalist expansion; second, local contingencies of class, ethnicity race and economic conditions that dictated the distinctive development of each colony: third, the discourses of Anglicism and liberalism with their insistence on the European need to bring civilization to the world; and fourth, the discourses of Orientalism with their insistence on exotic histories, traditions and nations in decline.(68) The political ideology of ELT in India is closely associated with how the colonialism hegemonically operates within the intricate system of culture. One of the earliest works of ELT in India was John Miller’s The Tutor in 1797 which intended to teach English for non-English speakers. A great deal 18 of English language teaching in the early colonial India was done in bilingual mode. The teachers were either bilingual or with the support of translator taught the foreign tongue to the students. The English educated Indians became English teachers then. These teachers used both languages (English and the regional tongue) in the classroom, whereas the native teachers of English stressed thorough use of English in the classrooms. The early learners of English in India used special wordlists based on their limited vocabulary use. The detailed books on grammar, pronunciation and other areas of English language appeared during the last decades of eighteenth century (Howatt 136- 140, Ayyar 80- 83).The longest-served English educator Thomas Prendergast, who worked in the EIC, “published the mastery method (MM) of language learning in two volumes with the help of what he thought were clues from nature” (Tickoo 241). The missionaries were the pioneers of English education in India who established many rural schools in the eighteenth century in order to impart formal education and vocational training. William Cary, a famous British missionary, who brought out a Sanskrit Grammar book ,opened the first vernacular school for Indian boys at Seramapore in the beginning decade of 1800 (Agnihothri 192). English literature was later found a place in the curriculum. The canonical literary pieces included in the missionary schools were “The Bible, Bunyan’s Pilgrim’s Progress, Milton’s Paradise Lost and the secular school curriculum included Pope’s translation of Illiad, Shakespeare’s Macbeth, Addison’s Essays, etc”(Agnihothri 198). Many private English schools were started and separate tuition classes for English were given by young English men and women in many parts of India (Sinha 22). The pedagogical aspects of ELT in India during these times, as observed by Agnihothri followed: 19 In the 19th century, the emphasis was always on accuracy in reading and writing; the skills of listening and speaking were generally neglected. …The teaching generally started with the alphabet, with the help of cards and pictures and gradually in Class II and III moved towards short sentences and simple readers imported from England. For the teaching of grammar, Woollaston’s grammar was used; it was soon to be replaced by the grammars of Wren and Martin, and Nesfield. (199). At the turn of the twentieth Century, the Grammar-Translation method stressed the teaching of formal grammar. The famous English educator Michael West’s Reading Method became popular in many schools of Bengal and other areas. It gave scope for learner autonomy while choosing the material for the syllabus. “ Things took a different turn by the middle of 20th century when it was realized that both grammar translation method and direct method did not make great calls up on the teacher’s linguistic ability”(West 49). West’s The Teaching of English: A Guide to New Method Series promoted the Reading Method in India. West’s Reading Method was experimented in Dacca and in some other parts of India. He emphasized the importance of reading and gave only a secondary place to speaking, which was the main tenet of the direct method. West’s idea was based on his ideas on vocabulary selection and systematic teaching of reading. A number of developments in the area of applied linguistics happened during and after two world wars at the international level. The Audio- lingual method, Aural-Oral Approach and Situational Approach emerged as the methods of language teaching during WWII. Structural linguistics, Behavioural psychology and the major developments in applied linguistics due to ‘demands’ made by WWII ushered and necessitated the need for teacher training. Pre-service training for 20 school level teaching was given importance and the language teaching training courses like L.T, B.T and B.Ed were introduced as teachers’ training courses. There was no in-service training provided for working teachers. After Independence, the structural syllabus developed by the London School was brought to India by the British Council and introduced at Madras in 1952 as part of the MELT (Madras English Language Teaching) campaign. This syllabus was inspired by the work done by Mackey and Noonan at the Institute of Education, London. This syllabus was an attempt to study the structures of English what Michael West had executed for vocabulary in West’s Method. Funded by the British Council, the MELT aimed at training 27,000 teachers at the primary level. The first English Language Teaching Institute (ELTI) was established at Allahabad in 1954 with the collaboration of the British Council. A National Seminar at Nagpur first suggested a framework for developing a unified school syllabus for teaching English at the national level. The Central Institute of English and Foreign Languages (now EFLU) was established at Hyderabad in 1958 under the auspices of Jawaharlal Nehru. Its major objectives were to prepare syllabus materials, produce teaching materials, train the teachers and improve the standards of teaching English in India. The Regional Institute of English, South India (RIESI), was established at Bengaluru in 1963 with the financial support from the Governments of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu to improve the standards of teaching English in South India. Most of the ELTIs were initially active. Later, they suffered from financial and human resource constraints (Saraswathi 3-4). The Structural Approach of ELT was adopted in Indian classrooms during 1960s. This approach included a list of graded vocabulary items in which the minimum number of words and structures that a non-native learner would need to communicate adequately. Simple grammatical structures were taught before introducing the complex ones. These structures were taught in artificial situations. 21 In 1964, the Government of India appointed a study group to enquire into English education in India which submitted its report The Study of English in India in 1967. The major objective of this study was to survey the nature of the study of English in India. Simultaneously, Brendan Carroll of the British Council, Madras designed intensive bridge courses in the medium of English at undergraduate level. With the publication of David Wilkins’s Notional Syllabuses in 1976, the notional-functional syllabus (NFS) took its shape and consolidated its methodological designs across Europe. The NFS concentrated on meaning-based categories (Tickoo 245-246).It proposed the communication aspects of language to the structural method. At the same time, The Bombay Project of 1977 was the first skill/functional-based approach which prescribed no study materials for teaching English at undergraduate level (Saraswati 8). As a reaction to the supremacy of the structural approach, the well-known ELT practitioner N.S Prabhu and his colleagues evolved The Communicational Teaching Project (CTP) as an alternative approach in the beginning of 1980s. He developed the procedural syllabus based on his five year-long experiment in South India. This task- based language teaching syllabus basically contained some tested tasks and a number of classroom experiences shared by the teachers (Tickoo 367). 1.4. English language policy- A Review through Curriculum Frameworks The National Council for Educational Research and Training (NCERT) was established in 1961. The initial task of NCERT was to produce uniform syllabi and textbooks for the country. At a meeting of the National Board of School Text books in 1970,the chairman of the Board pointed out the role of text books in ‘national integration, social awakening and economic growth’ (NCERT 1970 15). NCERT developed the first National Curriculum Framework (NCF) in 1975 based on the recommendations made by NPE 1968. Known as National Curriculum for the ten year schools-A Framework 22 (1975), it emphasized the need of regional language as the medium of instruction. This policy document concentrated more on the general objectives of education and teaching-learning experiences at large. The prominent social scientist P.N Dhar states, “The post-Nehru period of 1980s witnessed the attempts to accelerate economic growth by reducing controls and regulation on private sectors”(242). The new socio-economic changes at the global level tend to view “human skills and know-how are forms of the capital”(Dubey 133). The National Policy of Education 1986 also recognized that ‘education is a unique investment in the present and the future’ (GOI 1986 3). The New Education Policy/ NPE 1986 might be one of the earliest policy documents which pointed out the link between English education and the global demands made by market-driven economy. Shalini Advani, in her Schooling the National Imagination argues, “…, the NPE 1986 seemed to suggest that English remained the path to jobs and social mobility, critical to the emerging Indian aspiration as a modern society preparing for the twenty-first century”(44).The second curriculum framework entitled ‘National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education’ was implemented in the year 1988. Its curricular concerns aimed at strengthening national identity, equality of education and preservation of cultural heritage. The National Curriculum Framework was revived in 2000. Prepared at the time of global economic reforms, this policy document recognized the importance of Information Technology and the relevance of progressive educational thoughts.NCF 2000 aimed at promoting Indian values and ethos. Even though Sanskrit was adopted as a language of heritage by this policy document, the three language formula remained untouched. This policy document pressed the need to teach the functional aspects of language more than formal aspects. It also stressed the need of teaching language in real life situations (Advani 65). 23 The short-lived NCF 2000 led to the formulation of NCF 2005 under the new Congress-led government. NCF 2005 suggested a fresh outlook towards learning process by incorporating more civic-centric education strategies which aimed to nurture individuals with caring concerns to democratic society in order to make them critical citizens rather than text book centric learners. Equating global trends and national vision, NCF 2005 envisages that the aim of English teaching is not only to acquire the basic proficiency in second language but also to create multilingual citizens who can meet both national and global demands (39). The National Knowledge Commission (NKC 2005) also recognized the relevance of English education as “an important determinant of access to higher education, employment opportunities and social opportunities” (32). NKC observed some of the major drawbacks of English education in India. i. Lack of contextualization of the pedagogy of English ii. Faulty pedagogy that lays stress on grammar rules and not real learning experience. One of the major aims of NKC 2005 was to build excellence in the education system of India by posing intellectual solutions to tackle different socio-political problems and issues. The new pedagogical paradigm shift addresses the knowledge challenges of the global community in the present scenario. During 1970s, the dominant discourses of utilitarian principles posited schools as institutions to produce educated workforce which should strengthen the economy of the nation. Education is perceived as a means to achieve economic growth and development. The human capital theory in the education of economics takes its cue from neoliberal economic theory by the American economist, Theodore Schultz (Dubey 134). Considering knowledge and skill as forms of capital, this theory implies that the acquisition of 24 knowledge and skill helps to improve human capital/labour forces of the national development of any society. Investment in education becomes a means to increase productivity and to improve human capital.“Education, work, productivity and earnings are seen as linear continuum. The value of investment in education is defined by the life time earnings of educated labour” (Marginson 1). The contemporary educational policies around the globe collectively call for innovative changes in the curricular areas of school systems after 2000. Oxley and Morris observed: Major shifts which have contributed to this change and the consequent reform of citizenship curricula, beyond a concern for membership of a nation state, include: the emergence of global and cross national bodies, creating pressures for schools to promote forms of super national citizenship; multiculturalism, limiting the validity of ethno-nationalistic forms of identity; and associated attempts to promote forms of citizenship based on the promotion of a common set of shared values like tolerance, human rights and democracy) which prepare young people to live together in diverse societies. In some contexts citizenship education is also expected to contribute to the promotion of social justice, social reconstruction and democracy.(1-2) Rooted on the constitutional vision of India as a secular, egalitarian and pluralistic society founded on the values of social justice and equality, NCF 2005 document focused on the need to make children more sensitive to variety and difference; it pointed out the need to make the learners aware of many cultural worlds with which they would have to interact in everyday life. NCF 2005 stated: “Opening the concept of knowledge to include new areas of knowledge and experience, inclusivity in selecting learning tasks, pedagogic practices that are alert to promoting participation, building self-confidence and critical awareness”(10). Unlike its predecessors, this policy document 25 clearly marked a radical shift in its curricular ideologies and approach. Its major discourse was not about the creation of the National Citizen, but a Critical Citizen. Critical citizens are essentially required for a new knowledge economy because they are supposed to meet the global/national challenges by employing critical thinking, self-reflections, problem-solving skills etc. The broader shift in this vision also stressed on the pedagogic importance of constructivist approach to learning and the importance of using local knowledge. The one hundred and thirty page long document of NCF 2005 touched almost all aspects of school education including the pedagogical aspects like constructivist approach to learning and critical pedagogy. The new approaches proposed in NCF 2005 were naturally meant to be applied across disciplines including language education. NCF 2005 clearly stated: Critical pedagogy provides an opportunity to reflect critically on issues in terms of their political, social, economic and moral aspects. This is important in view of the multiple contexts in which our schools function. A critical framework helps children to see social issues from different perspectives and understand how such issues are connected to their lives…Critical pedagogy facilitates collective decision making through open discussion and by encouraging and recognizing multiple views. (23) The above discussion deals with the trajectory of English language teaching in India, locating different ages of colonialism, national movement and post- independence India. 1.5 English Language Teaching in Kerala Since this study deals with the constructive curriculum paradigm shifts in English teaching of Kerala, a background study of English language teaching is required to support this study. Unlike the other states of India, 26 Kerala is one of the early states which achieved secular education to an extent. The process of colonial modernity in Kerala is multidimensional in nature. Up to the beginning of the nineteenth century, formal education was not given to the masses. The main means of education was non-formal in nature. The influence of Christian missionaries gave a fresh outlook to the educational progress in Travancore State. The London Missionary Society (LMS) of the Travancore State was founded by W.T Ringletaube in 1806. Rani Gouri Lakshmi Bai, the ruler of Travancore, gave this Protestant missionary some land at free of cost. The missionary started a school at Nagarcovil to impart education to all children irrespective of caste, creed and religion (Yesudas ch1). Munro, the Resident Diwan dominated the affairs of Travancore. He had an evangelical vision to support and propagate Christianity. He invited Church Missionary Society (CMS) to work among the Syrian Christians of Kerala. Munro founded CMS College, Kottayam in 1816, which was one the earliest colleges in Kerala. Munro planned for the introduction of English education in Kerala. He believed that the spread of English literature among the people was one of the most effective means of attracting them to Britain. According to R.N.Yesudas, Col. Munro was a symbol of Travancore’s social awakening and the outstanding spokesperson of equality and freedom. He had heralded a new liberal, humanist and egalitarian society (7). During the reign of Shri. Swati Tirunal, the first English school was started at Travancore in 1834. Mr.Roberts, a native English teacher was in charge of it. This school was renamed as Raja’s Free School in 1864. This school was later upgraded as The Maharaja’s College in order to impart western education. English schools were opened at Kayamkulam, Kottayam etc. The Travancore State proclaimed that English educated Keralites would be given preference for service in public sector. 27 The first English school was opened at Mattanchery of Cochin State in 1818. Another English school was opened by Mr.C.Major in 1835 to teach the children of Jews. English schools were opened at Trichur and Tripunithara in order to impart English education to the children of royal family. A.E Searly, a European Headmaster, became responsible for the progress of English education in Cochin state, by opening an English school at Ernakulam in 1845. The Basel Evangelical Missionaries began to spread western education in Malabar by opening new schools at Calicut, Palghat and Telicherry. The socially deprived communities of Malabar were provided with formal education without discrimination by them (Manavalan 25-30). The missionaries imparted education among girls.The girls had been confined to the domestic domain and were not given any education. The missionaries especially C.M.S missionaries gave importance to girls’ secondary schools. They started the Baker Memorial Girl’s High School at Kottayam and the Buchanan Girls’ High School at Pallom. Mrs.Baker and Mrs.Fenn, the wives of missionaries conducted classes in the girls’schools. The lessons were selected from Arithmetic, Home Science and Moral Science. Mrs.Anne Norton started a girls’school at Aleppey. Bishop, a missionary worker began schools across Travancore, modelled on British grammar schools.The missionaries also started Girls School at Telicherry of Malabar region. The students were given general lessons along with vocational training. Primary education was made free for the girls and for the backward classes in Malabar.(Eapan 122-124, Subash and Vanitha 24-25). The impact of western education left great imprints on the social fabric of colonial Kerala. The upper caste Hindus who were the custodians of feudal economy gradually realized the need for a social change. The modern ideas of democracy, civil liberty acquired through western education, permeated in the socio-political life of Kerala. At the end of the nineteenth century, the new 28 elites who emerged from all the communities called for a social re-awakening. The western education formed a new literary aesthetic tradition that was catered to the Keralites. Displacing classical languages, English occupied the highest position in terms of the administrative and educational functions. The vernacularists argued for the modernization of their languages and literatures on the lines of English (Tharu 161-168). Some of the major regional novels written during the nineteenth century stood as indicative of the quest of the English-educated Indian upper class for a new social identity (Padikkal 237- 38). Indulekha (1889), by O. Chandu Menon, the first significant novel written in Malayalam, was crafted in response to a new set of social demands especially the reform debates in the colonial period. The gender-related social reform discourses (Nair Matrilineal system) and other aspects of social reforms such as the dissemination of English education became the central plot of this novel. The wide contradictions, apprehensions and complexities in the approaches of different communities towards English Education were visible during those days. The upper class Hindus like Namboothiris, Nayars, Tamil Brahmins and Syrian Christians were the major beneficiaries of English education in the initial stages (Robin Jeffery ch 2). These communities got access to colonial education and held key posts in the public service whereas the educationally backward Malabar Muslim community was suspicious of imparting English education through missionaries. The religious leaders of this community were hostile to the English language and English education by thinking that English as a language of an alien culture and modern life style (Kunju 26-30). At this critical juncture, Sree Narayana Guru, the colossal figure of Kerala Modernity said: “Utility of Sanskrit education seems to be diminishing. English is the language of the future. So we must ensure to give English education to our children” (qtd. in Kapikad 63). Acquiring English education helped the majority of the socially-deprived communities 29 (the labour force) to open an innings to participate in the literate public sphere and aspire for social mobility through government service. Poyikayil Yohannan, a famous social leader from Dalit-Christian community strongly believed that only education could introduce personal hygiene, patterns of work, new gender roles and refined language (English) to Christian converts (Sam 74). The newly educated people vehemently opposed untouchability and actively participated in the Nationalist movement. The communist movement of Kerala, which became Kerala’s governing party in 1957, promoted education of disadvantaged groups as its key priority (Sreedhara Menon 210-230). Kerala Modernity is inextricably bound with social reformation movement and colonialism. The missionary work provided even the remotest villages of the state with an awareness of the need of attaining proficiency in a link language like English for the survival. Mukalel states in his Linguistics: English has become a status symbol and a student without a reasonable command over English is perhaps not very comfortable with attainment of any educational goal. Similarly, teaching of English holds the key position in the entire curriculum of education. Teachers of English, in this context, owe the responsibility to enable the learners to achieve the educational goals in general and language aims in particular.(31) Formed by the States Reorganisation Act, the political history of modern Kerala began on 1 November, 1956. The socio-political changes in the princely states of Travancore-Cochin, the anti-feudal resistances and the birth of the Communist party in Malabar and the formation of the Aikya 30 Kerala Movement accelerated the political birth of modern Kerala based on linguistic division. Malayalam became the official language of the newly- formed state. At this point of time, the English teachers of Kerala used conventional second language teaching methods like the Grammar Translation Method, Bilingual Method and Direct Method which focused little on developing the learner’s communicative competence. The structural approach was widely accepted by the teachers of Kerala. The structural textbooks focus on lexical, phrasal, clausal grammar and graded vocabulary. Those textbooks give greater importance to the formal aspect of grammar or language learning. English was introduced in the school curriculum in class V up to high school. Kerala follows ‘Three language formula’ in which learners have the freedom to choose their first language (Sanskrit/Arabic/Urdu), even though their mother tongue is Malayalam. The pedagogic considerations and the methodology of teaching Second Language evolved considerably from the 1950s to the present. 1.6. English Education Reforms-Kerala English language was made compulsory as a second language from standard III in Kerala syllabus during 1960s. There was no textbook provided in the III standard. Oral lessons and some basic communicative contexts were introduced in this standard. As per the common syllabus of 1966, 20 minutes per day for III standard and 40 minutes per day were allocated to IV to VII standards (Suresh Kumar 39). Supplementary Readers were prescribed in order to improve the reading skills of the learners. The graded vocabulary and grammatical structures were taught through structural situational approach. Repetition and drills were the main teaching tools for instructing grammar lessons. The revision of textbooks was brought with several changes like depicting exercises and illustrations along with worksheets. K.S. Nair 31 analysed Secondary English textbooks prescribed for study during the period of 1952-1975. Some his major observations were: a. English textbooks were changed thirteen times during the time period of 1952-1975. b. Vocabulary was totally neglected in these textbooks and grammatical items were presented within the textual content. c. Absence of illustration in textbooks was a major drawback. A major change was initiated in the primary classes during 1990s. DIETs (District Institute of Education and Training) were established during these times. The educational policies such as Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE) and Minimum Levels of Learning (MLL) were introduced in primary classrooms. MLL was recommended to fix minimum levels of learning for all grades from standard 1st to standard IV. Although MLL standards were not fixed for second language, the text books and materials were consequently revised. The new revised textbooks focused on the ‘linguistic competences’ rather than methods. A survey conducted by NIEPA (National Institute for Educational Planning and Administration) placed Kerala at 18th position among Indian states in terms of English language literacy and Mathematics. One among the major findings of the survey was that 30 % of tenth standard students showed poor reading and writing skills in English. The District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) was initially introduced in Malappuram, Kasargod and Wayanad, the three backward districts and later expanded to other three districts including Palakkad, Idukki and Thiruvanathapuram. The major objectives of this scheme like expanding access to schools and reducing dropout rates were not very relevant matters in Kerala, since Kerala excelled in the human index indicators like public 32 education. The Union Government allocated more funds for the World Bank–aided DPEP schemes (Krishnakumar 561-562). Kerala used these funds for better infrastructure facilities, curricular reforms and teacher training. An entirely new culture of teaching and learning was introduced through these classrooms. As R. Krishnakumar observed: The aim of the new curriculum was to make the pupil confident of using the language through creative opportunities to listen, speak, read and write, without undue stress on pronunciation, clarity in writing and grammar, which is believed to impede a smooth process of language learning. Children are to be encouraged actively to engage with words and meanings, to play with them. Repetitions, impositions and rote memorisation should no longer be practised. (65) The entire curriculum was revised under activity-oriented and learner centered pedagogy in order to actualize the paradigm shift. Evaluation was to take place continuously and the overall development of the child was to be the primary goal in this new framework. The traditional English classrooms never promoted the creative and cognitive development of learners. Actual language learning will not take place without developing metacognitive skills such as language production and communicational strategies. The structural approach made grammar a conscious monitor to prevent learners from making errors. Speaking is a spontaneous activity. You speak whatever comes to your mind. Speech reflects your inner thought. Dr. K. N. Anandan, linguist and educator, developed a module to acquire different competencies in English for primary classes during 1990s.SLAP (Second Language Acquisition Programme) which was accepted for a short period, developed by Anandan theoretically predicated the Chomskiyan categorization of the I-Language and the E-language. The mental input of speaker’s linguistic knowledge is I-language. The E-Language 33 is the observable linguistic output. It is admitted that both of them are difficult to delineate in practice. The different manifestations of E-Language are used in multiple disciplines. The traditional classrooms only address the E-Language. One of the endeavours of SLAP is to develop the I-Language, the in-built language system. SLAP tries to draw an analogous relationship between the acquisition of L1 and L2. The educational philosophy propounded by Constance Weaver in the context of first language learning is known as whole language philosophy. The salient features of this approach, as stated by Anandan are: a. The whole approach is based on the observation that much of what children learn is learned with little, if any, direct instruction. b. The progression of language acquisition is from whole to part. c. A pre-determined curriculum is not the real curriculum. Teachers should have sufficient theoretical awareness to select and develop methods on the whole language philosophy and reject those that are not in conformity with this philosophy (“Tuition to Intuition” 403). What has been described above is a historical evolution of different language policies, methods and approaches which essentially outline the academic ambience of English classrooms in India and Kerala. The theoretical evolution of Teaching English as Second Language will be dealt in the next chapter. 34 INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. CHAPTER II THE CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING 2.1 A Brief Sketch of Teaching English as Second Language When the French lost its old glory as the Second Language of England, coupled with the adoption of English as court language by the Tudors and Stuarts, ELT was ushered in England. The decline of Latin as a link language of Europe eventually made English as the most powerful language across the continent. Translation was considered to be the best practice to learn foreign languages by Quintilian, the medieval scholar. The scholastic philosophy of the Middle Ages laid the solid foundation for grammar as a universal phenomenon. This belief emphasized that all human languages were the same in the content even though they differed in external manifestation. Based on the techniques of imitation, repetition and practice in reading and speaking, Jan Comenius, the Czech pedagogue introduced inductive approach to grammar teaching during sixteenth century. Unfortunately, these grammar teaching approaches were overlooked and the teaching of Latin remained to be the same classical grammar teaching. The first English textbook to teach English as a foreign language was published in the sixteenth century. Based on Quintilian model, the British pedagogue Roger Ascham’s The Schoolmaster (1570) put forward a pedagogical plan for teaching foreign language (Howatt 13). Simultaneously, John Locke, the Enlightenment philosopher followed the ideas of Comenius and advocated the natural method of language teaching. The Natural Method aimed at practising conversations in the target 35 language. Locke believed that grammar could be taught only after the acquisition of language. During the nineteenth Century, foreign language was included in school curriculum by European countries. A reading knowledge of foreign language by studying its grammar was expected to be the goal of foreign language teaching. Based on the medieval scholastic assumption, Greek and Latin assumed to be ‘the Grammar’ for any language. Meanwhile, the growth of grammar schools, the publication of different dictionaries and grammar books led to the conceptualization of the grammar translation method. 2.2. Grammar -Translation Method As its name indicates,” this method emphasizes the teaching of the second language grammar and its main techniques in translation”(Stern 453). Based on the Seidenstucker’s principles of language teaching, the German pedagogue Karl Plotz popularized this method in German schools. A Practical Course in English for Germans by J.C Fick was one of the earliest grammar- translation courses to teach English around 1820s. GT Method aimed at acquiring learners a wide list of foreign language vocabulary. Ollendorff’s grammar-translation courses which were loaded with translation practices and brief grammar lessons became popular around 1840s. This method was mostly used in the traditional instruction of the classical languages. This method was vehemently criticized for its rigid grammar rules and its negligence towards the dynamic nature of spoken language. It was effectively practised among the above average students only. Foreign language teaching methods can be distinguished chiefly on the basis of two factors: 36 (i) The stress puts on the language skills, and (ii) the attitude towards, the role of the L1 in teaching the L2. As a reaction to the excessive emphasis on classical written language in the grammar-translation method, later scholars exercised an excessive shift of stress on the speech-skills. (Mukalel, “Approach” 71) The Reform Movement was ushered in the last two decades of the nineteenth century. The publication of The Practical Study of Language (1899) by Henry Sweet and the formation of the International Phonetic Association (IPA) resulted in the formation of the Reform Movement. This movement discarded translation as an inadequate method to instruct language teaching. The French pedagogue Jean Joseph Jactot was the first to recommend monolingual methods for language classrooms. The reformists including Sweet, Palmer, Passy and Jespersen thought to use the target language as a means of instruction and communication. 2.3. The Direct Method The most important method among the reform practices was the direct method. The term ‘direct’ refers to the fact that learners are in direct contact with the target language. The new insight into foreign language teaching was based on the nature of language as an active and structured system. The oral/natural method of eighteenth century was identical with the principles of this method. The ultimate aim of this method was to develop the ability to think in the target language, whether speaking, reading or writing. It was important because the spoken form of language was given importance in its approach. By having a direct association between language and experience, this method advocated the learning of foreign languages without the medium of mother tongue. Moreover, this method gave importance to interrelated teaching materials and texts that would make learning effective. The 37 celebrated English philologist Henry Sweet was an advocate of this method. His work The Practical Study of Language is considered to be the first major work on the methodology of teaching a foreign language. Otto Jesperson’s How to Teach a Foreign Language (1904) advocated the use of contextualized learning materials. This method was widely accepted across Europe. The textbooks were systematized and Phonetics was introduced in language classrooms. Sir Walter Ripman, the English linguist, introduced this method in England. At the same time, this method began to decline in Germany, Switzerland and France because it required competent teachers with good communication skills. Simultaneously, EFL as a field of study got currency around the globe due to British colonialism. The fusion of the Applied Linguistics, Reform Movement and the Direct Method foregrounded a theoretical base for English as a Foreign Language. Various research programmes were carried out in EFL during 1920s and 1930s. Daniel Jones’s The Outline of English Phonetics (1918) and Harold Palmer’s The Scientific Study and Teaching Languages (1917) made the foundation of the teaching of English as a foreign language which was based on Applied Linguistics and practices of Direct Method. Palmer’s research was concentrated on the oral method and vocabulary. He worked on vocabulary research and contributed 600 word vocabulary sets for story telling purposes. Apparently, parallel growth of American Applied Linguistics was marked with the publication of The Coleman Report in 1929. Coleman developed the Reading Method that graded reading material with a controlled vocabulary list. Unlike GT method; it emphasized the link between the auditory and orthographic representations. Michael West published a lengthy report named Bilingualism (with special reference to Bengal) in 1926.His 38 study stressed the need for simple reading methods, based on limited vocabulary research. There were quite a few developments that took around the same time. Drawing from the anthropological theories of Franz Boas, the American anthropologist-linguist Edward Sapir introduced Descriptive linguistics in America. The American structural linguist, Leonard Bloomfield’s seminal work, Language (1930) influenced language teaching theory extensively. His linguistic programme of applications gained popularity among the academic society of America. Another American linguist, Charles Fries started the first English Language Institute at Michigan University in 1939. During the beginning of the twentieth Century, behavioural psychologists suggested that language learning was seen as a set of verbal behaviour habits. In 1942, Bloomfield’s pamphlet An Outline Guide for the Practical Study of Foreign Languages made some informal remarks on how to teach languages. These remarks made his pamphlet a major methodological guide for teaching foreign languages. The American armed forces used this pamphlet as the basis of foreign language teaching programmes during the WWII. The immediate consequences necessitated an urgent need for developing foreign language skills in order to communicate with the foreign speakers. The linguists and foreign language practitioners developed an innovative method called Army Specialized Training Programme (ASTP). This method focused more on listening and speaking skills. By the mid 1950s, the training programme developed into a full-fledged Audio-Lingual method. Meanwhile, Behaviourism, a school of American Psychology, became popular during 1950s. Behaviourists rejected Mentalism and its explanation of human behaviour in terms of emotive feeling and mental processes. The American psychologist, B.F.Skinner expounded the major tenets of Behaviourism in his work, Verbal Behaviour (1957). Structural linguists perceived language as an oral subject. Speech was considered to be the primary basis of language. 39 Every language consisted of a finite number of structural patterns. Language acquisition by human beings was equated with the learning process of animals. They sought a scientific approach for analysing and understanding human behaviour. In the words of Little Wood, the salient features of Behaviourism outline: a) The child initiates the sounds and patterns which she hears around her. b) People recognize the child’s attempts as being similar to the adult models and reinforce the sounds, by approval or some other desirable reaction. c) In order to obtain more of these rewards, the child repeats the sounds and patterns, so that these become habits. d) In this way, the child’s verbal behaviour is conditioned or shaped until the habits coincide with adult models.(5) The basic assumption of this method asserted that language learning was a mechanical skill and no intellectual process was involved in it. The materials prepared in this method emphasized the principles of selection, gradation and presentation. Hornby’s A Guide to Patterns and Usage of English (1954) became a standard reference book of basic English sentence patterns for textbook writers and teachers. Audio-lingual method was an inductive approach, in which learners identified the underlying structure of a pattern practice. The chief characteristics of this method are summarized by Richards and Rodgers: a) Language teaching begins with the spoken language; the material is taught orally before it is presented in written form. b) The target language is the language of the classroom. 40 c) New language points are introduced and practiced contextually. d) Items of grammar are graded following the principle that simple forms should be taught before complex ones. e) Reading and writing are introduced once a sufficient lexical and grammatical basis is established.(15) The decline of audio-lingual method is related with the decline of behaviourist theories of language acquisition after cognitive revolution. 2.4. Second Language Acquisition: Theoretical Approaches During 1960s, many scholars systematically formulated theories and models to address the basic assumptions about L2 knowledge and acquisition level in the field of SLA. Three different approaches namely, linguistic, psychological and social frame works were applied to SLA research prior to the 1960s and interest in L2 learning methodologies like Audio-lingual Method, Structural Approach and Reading Method were focused on foreign language teaching. The dominant linguistic model of 1950s was structuralism which emphasized the different levels of speech production such as phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.The most influential psychological model of learning was Behaviourism. Before going into the details of SLA, it is better to have an overview of language learning and its acquisition evolution. 2.5. Structural Approach Pragmatism, Behavioural psychology and Structural linguistics made significant impact on foreign language teaching during 1930s.The Swiss linguist, Ferdinand de Saussure is regarded as the Father of Modern Linguistics. His Course in General Linguistics (1916) focuses more on langue 41 (the underlying corpus system of language) rather than parole (the individual utterance). To him, linguistic signs are composed of two parts, a signifier which is the sound pattern of a word and a signified which is the mental concept of a word. His assumptions eventually led to a new school of Linguistics called Structuralism. It proposes the idea that many phenomena do not occur in isolation, but instead occur in relation to each other, and that all related phenomena are part of a whole with a definite, but not necessarily defined structure. The initial works of the structural linguists were based on the phonological component of language. The structuralist assumption viewed language as primarily speech. For them, communication is possible only if the basic structures of language have been acquired. This approach draws its attention to correct sentence formation through practicing drills. It viewed English language principally as a system of basic structures which should be thoroughly graded for purposes of teaching. The oral skills like speaking and listening skills came down to be the only effective means for attaining the required mastery of the basic English structures. The two factors related to this approach were selection and gradation of linguistic structures. This approach emphasized the teaching of graded structures rather than reading and writing of classic literary pieces. The new structural approach laid its thrust on learning English in meaningful situations and practising of the structures in real life situations. Carter and Nunan explained: The new structural approach calls for the teacher to present students with an explicit description of grammatical structures or rules which are subsequently practiced, first in a mechanical or controlled manner and later in a freer , communicative way.(39) 42 2.6. Behavioural Approach The major psychological approaches to language learning are derived out of two fundamental sets of theories, namely, Behaviourism and Cognitivism. Behaviourism, the psychological learning model, assumes that language learning can occur through imitation and repetition. This school believes that language is basically a process of conditioning. The American psychologist, B.F.Skinner distinguished between two kinds of learning, classical conditioning and operant conditioning. The classical conditioning theory was originated by the Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov. He conducted a series of experiments on dogs that led to the theory called conditioned reflexes. He experimented with dogs by ringing a bell prior to serving food to the dogs and measured the salivation rate. After a while, he would ring the bell without serving any food. He noted that the dogs produced saliva even when the food was not served. He concluded that it was due to conditioned response. His assumption was known as Pavlovian conditioning. Operant/instrumental conditioning was actually initiated by the American psychologist Thorndike. By conducting his experiments with cats, he theorized that some consequences were responsible for strengthening and weakening behaviours. According to behaviourists learning skills can be developed only through practising them. 2.7. Second Language Acquisition: New Theoretical Frameworks During 1960s, SLA research was mainly tied to three different approaches namely, linguistic, psychological and social frameworks. Before going into the details of SLA, it is better to have an overview of the evolution of language learning. 43 2.7.1. Linguistic Framework One of the early attempts of SLA is Contrastive Analysis. The post war United States made a lot of innovative studies in language teaching and learning based on structural linguistics and behavioural school of psychology. Charles Fries and Robert Lado from the University of Michigan formulated an analytical approach to language learning which was based on logical selection and graduation of linguistic items for language instruction. Contrastive Analysis by Lado which was heavily influenced by behaviourism, assumes language acquisition as a process of habit formation. Lado’s Linguistics across Cultures (1957) clearly stated that CA as a pedagogical tool for increasing the efficiency in L2 teaching and testing. However, CA failed to address the logical problem of language learning due to its heavy influence on Behaviourism and cross-cultural communication patterns. Even though CA paid more attention to positive transfer of learning, this analysis tried to equate errors with learning difficulty. Meanwhile, traditional Linguistics was vehemently questioned by linguists like Chomsky for its undue stress on surface-level forms rather than on the underlying rules of linguistic structure.With the publication of British applied linguist Pit Corder’s article The Significance of Learners’ Errors replaced CA with Error Analysis. In this approach, errors are seen as part of learning process which act as a source of insight in it. Pit Corder focused on learners’ internal creative ability to construct language. He coined a new term ‘transitional competence’ to refer to the state of learner knowledge. He treated errors as ways of testing learners’ hypothesis about the nature of language he is learning. (Corder 163-165, Saville – Trorike, 101-110). 44 2.7.2. Chomsky and Universal Grammar Language learning is seen as a meaningful process in cognitive school of Psychology. Both Cognitivism and Mentalism share the same view that language learning is based on the neuro-psychological bases of thought production. The cognitive school of psychology is the chief parallel to transformational generative grammar. Down the ages of Renaissance, Rene Descartes believed that the ability to use language in the normal way was a criterion for possession of mind. The great empiricist John Locke introduced the concept ‘tabula rasa’ which represented the clean state of human mind. According to him, the human mind is like a blank slate at the time of birth. He distinguished words corresponding to the categories of ideas.His observation on the association between words and ideas influenced the Enlightenment Movement to an extent. The cognitive school of psychology was reformulated with a lot of vigour against the neuro-muscular theories eschewed by the behaviourists. This school initiated a parallel school of thought called Transformationalism during the1960s. Transformationalism in Linguistics highlighted the sub areas like creativity, inventiveness and mentalism. But Noam Chomsky vehemently opposed the behaviourist assumption of language learning during the last phase of 1950s. Simultaneously, it must be noted that Neurolinguistics as a discipline emerged and closely shared some of the basic of assumptions of Cognitive linguistics about language acquisition. Paul Broca, a French surgeon, was the first medical practitioner who identified that the language ability was located in the left hemisphere of human brain. This area in human brain is later known as Broca’s area. Later on Wernick, a German surgeon, calls an area “posterior speech cortex” in the left hemisphere which plays a pivotal role in language comprehension. (Heilman,ch.2). 45 These medical research findings also triggered the revival of Cognitivism in the twentieth Century. Information Processing (IP), the major psycholinguistic framework claims that second language learning involves acquisition of complex cognitive skills. The acquisition of skills can be taught in hierarchical order from lower to higher skills. The developments in the area of Psycholinguistics, Neurolinguistics and Computer Science offered an extensive support to Chomskyan theories. Chomsky initiated his linguistic studies to explain the morphophonemics of Hebrew language with the support of his professor Zellig S. Harris. The Chomskyan Model of Linguistics was begun with the publication of Syntactic Structures in 1957. Universal Grammar is the central concept of the Chomskyan Linguistics. It is called Universal Grammar because it acts as a universal property for all languages. UG is embedded within the genetic makeup of human beings. Chomsky made a fundamental distinction between competence and performance. The underlying mental system competence encompasses linguistic ability to analyse language and to understand and generate new sentences. Competence is equated with the linguistic code whereas performance is an act of encoding and decoding. Chomskyan assumptions are below: a. Every human child is born with an innate capacity to learn language. This ‘language faculty,’ as Chomsky calls, is situated in the brain and acts as a biological endowment of the species’. b. His linguistic theories come under mentalistic philosophy. He observes that the study of human mind is related with the study of language. ( Anandan “ Tuition to Intuition” 109) Chomsky’s UG model asserts that the principles and parameters of grammar are internalised in the human mind. As the human mind is automatically imposed to linguistic structures, it is not needed to teach children linguistic structures or rules of language. The Minimalist 46 Programme, espoused by Chomsky, made considerable revisions in his UG model in relation to L2 learning. Chomsky formulated his theory by giving considerable attention to mastery of L2 vocabulary, As White puts: “Morphological paradigms must gradually be added to the lexicon, just like word”(194). 2.7.3. Monitor Model Adopting Chomsky’s notion of ‘Language Acquisition Device’ (LAD), this L2 model is proposed by the Canadian linguist, Stephen Krashen. Krashen formulated his hypothesis in order to assume how the L2 code is acquired. This monitor model is a collection of fine hypotheses which are linked together. These hypotheses are summarized below: (a) Acquisition – Learning Hypothesis: A striking distinction between acquisition and learning is differentiated by Krashen. Acquisition as a subconscious process involves in child’s L1. Learning as a conscious process is exemplified by the L2 learning. (b) Monitor Hypothesis: The learned input acts as a monitor for editing and checking what we have acquired. (c) Natural Order Hypothesis: There is a predictable order to acquire the rules of language. (d) Input hypothesis: Language acquisition takes place in the presence of comprehensible input. Once input is understood, the grammar is automatically internalised. (e) Affective Filter Hypothesis: The different individual variables like ‘mental block’ can affect the process of acquisition (Krashen, ch.2). 47 Krashen asserts that learnt knowledge and acquired knowledge are two independent entities. The learnt knowledge cannot be converted into acquired knowledge. Krashen’s model influenced language teaching to a great extent in the latter half of 1980s and 1990s. 2.7.4. Social Context in SLA Language is an organic entity. By evolving out of the manifold interactions, language is used in different social contexts and situations by human beings. In response to the concept of grammatical competence, the American linguist, Dell Hymes introduced the concept of communicative competence. He developed the concept ‘Ethnography of communication’ during 1960s.Communicative competence refers to the knowledge, including vocabulary, phonology of the linguistic structure and the context of communication of which the speakers possess. As Beale observed the four components of communicative competence are given below: a) Grammatical Competence: producing structured comprehensible utterances (including grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation and spelling). b) Socio-cultural Competence: Using socially-determined cultural codes in meaningful ways, often termed ‘appropriacy’. c) Discourse Competence: Shaping language and communicating purposefully in different genres. d) Strategic Competence: Enhancing the effectiveness of communication and compensating for breakdowns in communication (14). Meanwhile, neo-Firthian linguistics had a great influence upon language teaching in Europe. J.R.Firth, a linguist from London School of 48 Linguistics, focused more on meanings than on linguistic structures. He drew heavily upon the Polish-born British anthropologist Malinowki’s Context of situation. According to him meanings are significant within the context of situations. Firth’s prosodic phonology made a systematic approach to phonological features in sequential order. The English-born linguist and the prominent neo-Firthian, M.A.K. Halliday developed his ‘Scale and Category Grammar’. Later, he developed a more functional approach to linguistics, which was widely used in British school for teaching English. His functional approach to linguistics was known as Systematic Functional Grammar. In his Language and Social Semiotic, he observed that learning one’s mother tongue is learning the uses of language, and the meanings, or rather the meanings potential, associated with them. The structures, the words and the sounds are the realization of this meaning potential. Learning language is learning how to mean (26-30). Halliday focused on the macro functions of language namely textual, interpersonal and ideational aspects. Halliday’s functional grammar cemented upon Hymsian perspective that language constitutes not only a hierarchical structures but also a network of transformations. Hallidayan and Hymsian perspectives found socio-linguistic principles that mark a radical shift from method-ridden language pedagogy to activity oriented/learner-centered language pedagogy. This pedagogical orientation declared that there were ‘rules of use, without which rules of grammar would be useless; a distinction was made between grammatical rules of usage that enabled users to construct correct sentences and the use of language to accomplish some kind of communicative purpose (Widdowson,“ Teaching Language” ch.3). The British philosopher J. L Austin’s Speech Act Theory also made an impact on language learning theories. According to Austin, when we say something, we perform three acts simultaneously: a locutionary act, an 49 illocutionary act and a prelocutionary act. At the locutionary level, a speaker produces sounds (Phonetic act) which are well ordered with respect to the phonological system and grammar of a particular language (phatic act), and carry some sense with respect to the semantic sense with respect to the semantic and pragmatic rules of that Language (rhetoric act). In illocutionary level, the speaker is expressing his intention. In prelocutionary level, the speaker’s performance includes the consequences of his speaking, and has only limited control over them. When we speak, we perform a large number of speech acts. This theory gives an insight that language is a series of speech acts.(Austin 110-20) The market economy of Europe sought professional help from the applied linguists to prepare the syllabi and teaching materials for English during 1970s. The large scale migration of labourers and the economic boom necessitated an innovative pedagogical approach towards second language learning. At the same time, the council of Europe set up the need-based syllabus based on functional and situational views of language. Wilkin’s notional-functional syllabus became the earliest attempt at marking the shift from structural approach to a more functional approach. This new syllabus mainly dealt with communicative purposes of the speech act. It focused on the purpose of communication and what users wanted to accomplish through speech. 2.8. Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) The linguistic perspectives put forward by Halliday and Hymes, Austin’s speech act theory and the functional notional syllabus ushered a new innings in the field of SLA. All these different perspectives on language philosophy and pedagogy share the underlying fact that language is for communication. As Breen and Candlin rightly put “language learning may be seen as a process which grows out of the interaction between learners, 50 teachers, text and activities” (95).The learner’s role in classroom is highlighted by this socio-linguistic pedagogical orientation. The desired goal of CLT is to improve communicative competence in the target language. Effective communication is sought in classroom. This approach is basically a learner centered pedagogical approach. The teacher becomes a facilitator who facilitates communication in the classroom. She acts as an adviser and monitors students’ performance. She might be a ‘co-communicator’ engaging in the communicative activity along with students (Littlewood, “Communicative Language” ch.5). Errors are treated as a normal phenomenon in the communicative process. Language games and role plays are used as techniques in CLT. CLT practitioners use authentic materials as learning materials. The traditional learning materials were quite inadequate to transfer the learning content to real life situations. So, CLT practitioners prefer the use of authentic materials which are taken from newspapers, radio, ads, television, articles etc. According to Widdowson,“what is authentic and natural to native speakers of the target language is not so to learners in the classroom. What is important is that these materials are used in a way that is real for learners” (“Context” 710). The CLT influenced the different aspects of language teaching like syllabus design, material production, classroom interaction and error analysis to a great deal. It has exciting positive sides like interesting language games, students ‘engagement etc. The British writer Michael Swan made a critical observation about the drawback of this approach. For him, with its many virtues, the communicative approach has most of the typical vices of an intellectual revolution; it overgeneralizes valid but limited insights until they became virtually meaningless; it makes exaggerated claims for the power and novelty of its doctrines; it misrepresents the currents of thoughts it has 51 replaced; it is often characterized by serious intellectual confusion; it is choked with jargon (“A Critical Look” 8-10). Stern also shares a similar view and criticises the theoretical framework of CLT. He writes: “As for the communicative approach, the reliance on a single overriding, concept, ‘communication,’ is a disadvantage which prevents communicative language teaching from being entirely satisfactory as a theoretical framework” (14). Some of the ELT practitioners made two distinct versions of CLT. One is the strong version of CLT in which “learners are more dynamic and take the responsibility of learning”. The other one is the weak form of CLT in which “teachers take the dominant role and practice mechanical drills like pre-communicative activities” (Howatt 326). Depending largely on the mechanical reproduction of linguistic chunks, the classroom practitioners of CLT as observed by Tirumalesh (1997) are “either unaware of its inadequacies or do so as a kind of corrective to the misappropriation of formal theory by vested interests” (9). 2.9. Humanistic Approach Humanistic approach in language teaching generally stands for ‘caring and sharing’ attitude towards learners. The American educator Earl Stevick intends to apply humanistic values in language teaching in our times. The primary emphasis of humanistic education is on the regulatory system and the affective/ emotional system. Caleb Gatten’s The Silent Way, Lozanov’s Suggestopedia, J.J Asher’s Total Physical Response are the major humanistic schools of thought in language education. These schools commonly thought show aspects like creating a pleasant learning atmosphere, encouraging learner autonomy etc. 52 The capitalist world coupled with neo-liberal reforms and global migration demand an increasingly dynamic, diverse language classroom. A major chunk of applied linguists think that the method/approach driven classrooms have gone away from ELT class with the ‘celebration’ of communicative approaches. Current theories on language learning try to find out the mismatch between the traditional learning theories and the learners’ needs. These new theories are reconceptualised in accordance with the emerging trends in learner needs, ICT and global economy. 2.10. Constructivism Constructivism as a pedagogical approach is comparatively a new concept. The earliest vibes of constructivism as an epistemological approach can be traced back to the Classical ages. The philosophical roots of constructivism can be traced back to the German philosopher Immanuel Kant’s Synthesis of rationalism. It basically propounds that knowledge is derived from the organized experiences which are based on cognitive structures. Constructivism in the modern age was launched by Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist. It basically refutes the idea that knowledge has to represent reality. The implications of this theory have widely been used in the field of education. The constructivist view involves two principles: a. Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment. b. Coming to know is a process of adaptation based on and constantly modified by a learner’s experience of the world. (Glaserfeld, “Constructivism in Education” 162) Dougiamas describes five types of constructivism as follows: 53 a. Trivial Constructivism This type of constructivism is described as personal constructivism. Knowledge is actively constructed by the learner, not passively received from the environment. b. Radical Constructivism Coming to know is a process of dynamic adaptation towards viable interpretations of experience. The knower does not necessarily construct knowledge of a real world. c.Social Constructivism The social world of the learner, including students, teachers and school authority influences the learning atmosphere. These factors are taken into consideration in this school of constructivism. d. Cultural Constructivism The social environment of learning is studied along with other cultural factors like religion, custom and language. e. Critical Constructivism It looks at constructivism within a social and cultural environment, but adds a critical dimension aimed at reforming these environments in order to improve the success of constructivism applied as a referent hence adds another perspective for consideration by curriculum researcher (40). The logic of conventional language teaching framework was challenged by post-structuralists during 1960s and 1970s. The post- structuralist theories treat language teaching as an integrated process rather than a segregated treatment of LSRW skills. At the outset of epistemological 54 framework, the perspective change has been shifted from a static/passive view of knowledge transmission towards a more active view of knowledge transformation. Meanwhile, the post modern approach has inaugurated fresh perspectives towards educational theories. The modernist tenets of education like universalization of education, transmission of knowledge and behaviourist learning model are challenged by the post modern approach. Being skeptical about the objectivity of truth, identity and norms, post modernism views world as a fluid, unstable and diverse entity. The postmodern world was characterized by multiple cultural and linguistic pluralities in societies and their institutions. Simultaneously, the globalized educational policies viewed education as a means to achieve economic growth and development. The contemporary educational theorist, Michael Apple, viewed traditional schools as production houses for technical knowledge as an inevitable need of a consumer- ruled economy (62). The fast growing world economy calls for an innovative paradigm in education because progressive education systems require learners to tackle problems by using critical thinking. Post modernist educational ideology emphasizes a functional outlook towards educational institutions, by promoting skills rather than ideals. Skilled performance or competence becomes an important part of the post-modern educational agenda (Lyotard, ch.3). This new era of education tends to promote constructivist paradigm in which learning experiences make learners construct knowledge and this kind of experience helps them to face the challenges in real life. The growing demand for a more well- rounded approaches to language teaching is required to address the post modern world in which reality is transformed daily. Post modernism upholds holism in its educational approach involving subjective attributes like creativity, flexibility, learner autonomy and critical thinking. Surpassing the old educational paradigm of control, regulation, authority and rules, constructivist paradigm as a democratic pedagogy of civic engagement 55 is concerned with individual freedom and social responsibility. Constructivism offers an opportunity for diversified ways of knowing and learning by engaging all the students in the learning process. The holistic view of Constructivism recognizes the inherent potentiality of each student’s creative and critical thinking skills. The learners are critically engaged in addressing the cultural, moral and social aspects of their lives. In this connection, it is appropriate to recall the opinion of Ira Shor. As this famous critical pedagogue observes: the critical approach to education calls for an “ empowering education” that relates personal growth to public life by developing strong skills, academic knowledge , habits of enquiry and critical curiosity about society, power inequality and change.(15) As an epistemological view of learning, Constructivism posits learners at the core of learning process. Constructivist paradigm advocates the concept of learner autonomy. The concept learner autonomy is broadly identified with learners’ ability to control overlearning process. The broad perspective of learner autonomy entails self- regulated learning behaviours. Self-regulation in its broad sense entails control over the cognitive, emotional, motivational and behavioural aspects of learning, whereas autonomous learners are also capable of taking responsibility for the content and management of their learning (course materials) and social context in which learning takes place ( Benson qtd. in Kormos and Csizer 279). Constructivists emphasize the reflective necessity of knowledge construction. Learning takes place through a reflective process in which concrete experiences are contextualized through learners’engagement. The 56 pedagogical practice of constructivism is basically a meaning- making philosophy. The pedagogical practices assume that learning can be achieved through active knowledge and interaction. They basically promote individual autonomy, rooted in the philosophy of individualism. John Dewey, the educational philosopher and pragmatic constructivist educator, propounds that education is a social process and a process of living, not a preparation for future life. He assumes education as an enquiry in which thought is intertwined with reflection and action. He clarifies: We must make the child as a member of society in the broadest sense, and demand for and from the schools whatever is necessary to enable the child intelligently to recognize all his social relations and take his part in sustaining them.( “ The School and The Society” 8) Being regarded as the father of the progressive education movement, Dewey defines education both as an adaptation to change and the power to transform these changes. During the early decades of twentieth Century, the progressive educators propagated their intellectual thoughts about developing strategies to solve socio-political issues like poverty, migration and economic disparity. Grounded in specific principles like learning as meaning-making process, democratic practices of education and the development of autonomy, the progressive pedagogies constitute different terminologies like problem- based learning, holistic approach, whole language approach etc. Problem-based learning or issue based curriculum is rooted in constructivist philosophy in which knowledge is actively constructed within the mind of learners and influenced by peer group interaction and with the learning environment. The major features of Problem Based Learning (PBL) are identified as: 57 a. Learning is learner-centered. b. Learning occurs in small peer groups. c. Teachers are facilitators. d. Problems are the organizing focus and stimulus for learning. e. Problems are vehicles for the development of clinical problem-solving skills. (Barrons 270-277) An inquiry into the problem is an attempt to address the confused and problematic situations. The learner is supposed to construct new meanings to solve and tackle such problem-posing situations. The epistemological position of Behaviourism holds the notion that the knowledge and the knower are separate entities in which experience and knowledge are totally isolated. Positioning itself as antithetical to the traditional epistemology, constructivism considers knowledge as a collaborative/collective product. The constructive theories have been further enhanced by the works of Piaget, Vygotsky and Bruner. 2.10.1 Jean Piaget’s individual constructivism Jean Piaget (1896- 1980) was the earliest pioneer of constructivism in the modern times. The Swiss psychologist Piaget’s Developmental psychology underlined language acquisition as a holistic process. The traditional notions of Behaviourism asserted that children should be engaged in their learning experiences to facilitate biological growth. Piaget believed that a child’s interaction with external surrounding was paramount and abstract thinking could be possible only when the child attained the fourth stage of development. He also found that the didactic nature of behaviourism fails to infuse and nurture interest in developing the experimental attitude and creativity in students’ mind. According to Piaget, the development of 58 knowledge is a biological process. He identified knowledge as a process of individual construction and re-construction. The learner or constructor of knowledge was referred to an ‘epistemic knowing agent’ by Piaget. The focus of Piagetian constructivism was on the learner and on peer relations which regulated power relations to create optimal challenge. Piaget divided the development of human intellectual development in the following manner. a. The Sensory motor stage (Age 0 to 2 years) The period is mainly controlled by physio- motor movements. According to Piaget, the schema is developed in this period. The beginning of mental representation coincided with the development of schema. The schema can be defined as the data structures which are stored in the human mind. b. The pre-operational stage (Age 2 to 7 years) At the onset of ‘internalization’, the children begin to talk and grasp language through internalization and classification. Piaget believed that children are egocentric in their thinking and this egocentric speech does not have any direct influence on the development of language. c. Stage of concrete operations (Age 7 – 11 years) The child develops different kind of thinking patterns like abstract thinking, concrete thinking etc. d. Period of formal operations (from age 11) It is a period of matured thinking capacities. Thus, Piaget’s theory comes under individual psychological constructivism. The NCF 2005 specifically recommended new curriculum model based on the theoretical assumptions propounded by Piaget, Bruner and Vygotsky. 59 2.10.2. Lev Vygotsky’s Social Constructivism The Soviet psychologist Lev Vygotsky’s (1896-1934) Social constructivism focused on the cognitive development of the learners in relation to social, cultural and biological elements. This theory stressed the major role of socio-cultural circumstances in the cognitive development of human beings. He proposed a socio- cultural theory of development. Human development is basically a socio-genetic process carried out in social activities. The individual is genetically social and human development cannot happen in isolation. The function of development happens at two levels among individuals. The first level is in the social level (interpsychology) and the next level is within the psychological (intrapsychology) level. The most important assumptions of this are: a. Mediation The most important factor for development in infancy is asymmetrical interaction occurring with adults. Language is a social mechanism for thinking. There are three stages of development in relation to thought and speech. They are: Stage I: The thought and speech are not correlated in this stage. Stage II: This stage is characterized by ego-centric speech in which thought and speech are connected to each other. Stage III: The ego-centric speech is transformed into internal speech. During the process of development, language, as a powerful tool, becomes an integral part of the psychic structure of the individual. According to Vygotsky, mediation represents the use of tools and language is one such tool. Language is regarded as one of the symbolic/ psychological tools of mediation in mental activities. Language learning is a 60 socially mediated process. For Vygotsky, the individuals use psychological tools for directing and controlling their physical and mental behaviour. These psychological tools, especially language, are artifacts and serve as mediators for an individual’s mental activity. Vygotsky viewed that second language acquisition is a process of mediation in which there are three kinds of mediation. They are mediation by others, self-mediation and the mediation of cultural artifacts. Mediation by others is mediation between experts and novices. Self- mediation involves two important concepts like private speech and gesture. Private speech is speech for usual communication. It has three different kinds of functions, namely, meta-cognitive function, practice function and internalization function. Individuals can develop their cognitive function, improve their capability of using the language and internalize it by speaking to themselves. Gestures are regarded as the non-verbal signs which augment the private speech (Lantolf ch. 2). Learning is considered to be a socially mediated process based on interaction and discussion. The social mediation can be applied to second language learning. The mediation of cultural artifacts concerns the socio- cultural environment and first language. In SLA, individuals should try to apply the socio-cultural environment and first language to acquire the target language (Chowdhary, ch.6). b. Regulation It is a kind of mediation which refers to the capacity of children to regulate their own activity through linguistic means by participating in activities regulated by others. The initial object-regulation is a stage in which children are often controlled by or by using objects in their environment in order to think. The next level includes various levels of implicit and explicit assistance (Scaffolding). The last one self-regulation which is made possible 61 through internalization refers to the ability of learners to accomplish activities. c.Internalization According to Vygotsky, the process of internalization accounted for the organic connection between social communication and mental activity. Imitation, as Vygotsky asserted, is the goal directed cognitive activity which becomes the source of change in linguistic behaviour. d. The Zone of Proximal Development Vygotsky introduced the concept ZPD (the Zone of Proximal Development). The ZPD can be considered as a necessary condition for human development. Development may be more productive only if children are exposed to new learning in their proximal zone of development. Instruction becomes useful only when it surpasses development. One of the major assumptions in ZPD is that “learning is oriented towards developmental process but rather lags behind this process”(Vygotsky 89). ZPD can be defined as a zone between the level of actual development.It is characterized by independent problem solving activities and the level of potential development in which problem solving can be done. It is done with the help of adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. In one of his seminal works, Vytotsky explained the notion of ZPD: The Zone of Proximal Development defines those functions that have not yet matured but are in the process of maturation, functions that will mature tomorrow but are currently in an embryonic state. These functions could be termed the “buds” or “flowers” of development rather than the “fruits” of development.(“Mind in Society” 86) 62 When an individual is capable of learning more complex skills, ZPD can be removed. 2.10.3 Jerome Bruner The celebrated American psychologist Jerome Bruner (1915-2016) contributed to constructivism immensely. To Bruner, “the outcome of cognitive development is thinking. The intelligent mind creates from experience generic coding systems that permit one to go beyond the data to new and possibly fruitful predictions” (“Going Beyond” 234). Like Piaget, Bruner thought that cognitive development was a continuous mental process. He proposed three modes of representation on the cognitive development of children. The initial stage is enactive representation which ranges from 0 to 1 year. The information is stored through action. The child represents past events through motor movements. The middle stage is iconic representation which ranges from 1 to 6 years. This is a conscious stage of experience in which information is stored visually in the form of images. The last stage is symbolic representation which ranges from 7 years to adulthood. Information is stored in the form of a code or symbol in this stage. Language is one form of code or symbol. Bruner’s Constructivism posits learner as an active agent of knowledge. Construction fuses together his/her past experience and present knowledge. According to him, the child can learn any complex subject at any age, as opposed to Piaget’s notion of readiness. It is generally assumed that acquisition of knowledge matches with cognitive development. He argues that human learning is best when it is “participatory, proactive, communal, and collaborative” (Bruner, “Culture” 84). He introduced the concept of ‘spiral curriculum’. The difficult subject is taught in a simplified manner at the beginning stage. At the later stages, the first stage is revisited and the advanced level of the difficult subject is taught. The ultimate aim is to make 63 the learner solve problems independently. Bruner’s theory of ‘scaffolding’ influenced modern educational theories a lot. When the child advances in conceptual learning and language development, the teacher or parent can ‘Scaffold’ the child to encourage using language. Vygotsky’s ‘theory of ZPD’ and Bruner’s scaffolding are identical to an extent. Scaffolding refers to the help rendered by adults or able peers in the process of learning. When the learner is able to learn things independently, the scaffold is gradually removed. As a new philosophy of learning, constructivism made its mark only a few decades ago. Some of the critiques against constructivism are noted here. Piaget observes: Constructivist methods are difficult because they seek access to an ‘internal epistemology’. This epistemology is always in process; it cannot simply be the study of the state of knowledge today, but must concern knowledge’s ongoing development and transformation: … ‘Scientific thought’ is a process of continual construction and reorganization.(298) Jonassen remarks: Constructivism is also often misconstrued as a learning theory that compels students to ‘reinvent the wheel”. In fact, constructivism taps into and triggers the student’s innate curiosity about the world and how things work. Students do not reinvent the wheel but, rather, attempt to understand how it turns, how it functions. They become engaged by applying their existing knowledge and real-world experience, learning to hypothesize, testing theories, and ultimately drawing 64 conclusions from the findings.( qtd. in Bada and Olusegun 66- 67) While discussing psychological and sociological schools, it is inferred that meaning/knowledge is actively constructed in the humans mind. The social constructivism expounded how the social nature of knowledge development occurs within the framework of power and other socio-economic factors. Constructivist paradigms make learners more sensible towards social issues in the contemporary world. It encourages making learners to go beyond the conventional notion of ‘language is to communicate’. 65 INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. CHAPTER 3 THE CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECONDARY EDUCATION: KCF 2007 AND 2013 PRAXIS 3.1 Introduction The present study is an attempt to analyze the efficacy of Constructive Curriculum paradigm shift in the context of English classrooms in Kerala. Sociolinguistics as a distinct field of research concerns language policies, language use and multilingualism within the educational scenario. Being a multilingual society, India addresses the different socio-cultural aspects of language education. A consensus on language education was first arrived at Three Language Formula proposed by Mudhaliyar Commission during 1960s. The growing global demand for English and the explosion of information technologies consolidated the position of English in Indian curriculum. As a global language and an international language of business, English promotes multilingualism by teaching English as a second/foreign language. Multilingualism, in simple terms, means speaking two or more languages. The extensive curriculum reforms in the pedagogical context are quite often linked with the market-driven economy in the contemporary world. As Francis Giampapa and Suresh Canagarajah observe that “the rise of transnational corporations...have encouraged the movement of people from students to skilled workers, seeking often English-mediated learning experiences or employment opportunities so as to engage with the global market” (1). The concept of curriculum implies a larger pedagogical canvas whereas the syllabus is described as a plan of a particular course of study that is covered in a document. It captures topics like attitude to the school, home 67 environment, the teaching objective, the teacher’s attitude to the class, job satisfaction, the demands made on the teacher and the learner. The curricular objectives are changed in accordance with the current policies of the authority. Richards and Rogers define curriculum as an educational programme which states: (a) the educational purpose of the programme (the ends) ;(b) the contents, teaching procedures and learning experiences which will be necessary to achieve this purpose (the means) ;(c) some means for assessing whether the educational goals have been achieved. (70) Breen defines that any syllabus is a plan of what is to be achieved through teaching and learning. It is a part of an overall language curriculum or course, which is made up of four elements; aims, contents, methodology and evaluation. (151) Language curriculum is an important field within the domain of educational planning. It is planned on the basis of the relationship between the socio educational contexts and language.KCF 2007 provides an opportunity to understand the role of language education and its social and political implication in the present scenario of Kerala. 3.2 Kerala Curriculum Framework 2007 and Critical Pedagogy With the adoption of NCF, the Government of Kerala initiated curricular reforms in schools which follow the state syllabus. The initiative to reform the curriculum began in August 2006 and culminated with the publication of Kerala Curriculum Framework 2007. As a maiden attempt to systematise and formulate a curriculum framework after the formation of Kerala in 1956, the significance of KCF 2007 marked a theoretical shift from objective learning theories to subjective knowledge construction approaches. Curriculum framework is a general policy document which reflects an 68 integrated vision of the curriculum including educational and philosophical foundations, teaching instructions and learning strategies to address the curricular development at all levels. Keeping the socio-economic demands at the backdrop of KCF 2007, the policy makers of Kerala reconsidered their positions on English teaching methods and approaches. Initially, a three day workshop was conducted to familiarize academicians and educational experts. The representatives from educational agencies like SSA, DIETs and SCERT faculty attended the workshop. These academic endeavours eventually led to the formulation of the KCF 2007. Drawing upon NCF 2005, KCF 2007 introduced critical pedagogy and issue based curriculum in the academic year 2008-2009. KCF 2007 set critical pedagogy and issue based curriculum as the pedagogical tools for exercising constructivist curriculum paradigm in its curriculum framework. Constructivist theory is consistent with the major tenets of critical pedagogy. Though implicit in nature, it is imperative that KCF 2007 was made in line with the major theoretical underpinnings stated above. Inspired by a number of non-authoritarian educational thoughts like Pragmatic constructivism by the American educational reformer, John Dewey, CP is rooted in the Frankfurt school of critical theory. As an attempt to construct a more just society, this Marxian school views our ideas, educational practices and interactions are not neutral or objective in nature. Paulo Freire, a Brazilian educator and philosopher, practiced CP to empower the working class people against the oppressive conditions in their lives. He viewed the traditional mode of education system as banking model in which learners were perceived as empty vessels to be filled with knowledge by teachers. He proposed the problem solving model of education to overcome unfavourable life conditions by raising the critical consciousness of the learners. In problem- posing education, “people develop their power to 69 perceive critically the way they exist in the world with which they find themselves; they come to see the world not as a static reality, but reality as a reality in process, in transformation” (83). In line with post modern educational theories, Simon observes: The basic goal of educating students is to take risks,to struggle with ongoing relations of power, to critically appropriate forms of knowledge that exist outside of their immediate experience, and to envisage versions of a world which is ‘not yet. ( qtd. in Pishghadam and Meidani 468) Human experiences are linguistically represented and constituted by meanings. Language is a medium through which our identity is realized. Moreover,language learning and teaching is always treated as an ontological skill. Since reality and language are interconnected, Freire thought that “reading the word itself implies reading the social world”( “ Reading the world” 19). CP proposed the importance of engaging in dialogic process. As Freire commented that “through dialogue, the teacher-of- the students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist, and a new term emerges: teacher- student with student-teachers”(80). Dialogic process requires mutual faith, love, hope and critical thinking. The collaborative intellectual work makes this process easier and constructs mutual creation and recreation of knowledge. Friere’s emanicipatory model of education is a practice in which people are mobilized to get power. The power can transform them. CP seeks reflection and action which are derived from deep thought. The growing demand for better rounded approaches to language education is required to address the post modern world in which reality is transformed daily. The paradigm shift put forward by KCF 2007 towards English education implies changes in language content of secondary 70 classrooms, textual consumption and textual production. The traditional Applied linguistics viewed “critical thinking as apolitical, classrooms as isolated and equitable, and that English teaching should not aim for change” (Pennycook, “Critical Applied Linguistics” 11). Meanwhile, Vygotsky’s socio-cultural theories on language learning attempted to theorise the role of dialogue between an expert teacher and a novice learner. Vygotsky stressed more on the individual and ignored issues of power and inequality which were embedded in social interaction (Britton 7).Critical pedagogues seriously examine the relationship between language and power relations in social discourses. Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) attempts to design research methodologies to analyse the relationship between language and the social world. Even though the new policy document is not written out critical discourse analysis as an explicit part of it, the new English textbooks based on KCF 2007 extensively incorporated such critical pedagogical practices as their tools. The policy document follows issue based curriculum having eight issues which are commonly felt throughout Kerala. This new ESL curriculum motivates learners how to engage or indulge in civic life. This curriculum is supposed to enhance the critical consciousness of the learners, develop a critical ability to identify and overcome social conflicts. Since learning is linked with social development, KCF included social issues at the core of the new curriculum. Learning is internalised as a systematic social process that takes forward the various vocations in the society. It raises challenges by bringing in various social issues into the framework of formal education. Here are a couple of excerpts from the Teacher’s Hand Book of Class IX: 71 A curriculum that does not address the issues (issue-domain areas which have already been discussed) can never lead Kerala forward. These issues are developed and sensitized using various discourses. Learning becomes productive, need-based, meaningful and linguistically effective in such an approach. The textbooks provide a platform for the learner to observe, analyze, predict, judge, connect, critique and reach conclusions on different aspects of life, language and literature. Learning of this kind bridges experiences with social aim. (19) This self-explanatory policy statement is a pointer to the ongoing classroom practice. The new curriculum is based on emotive, cognitive interpretations, interventions and interpretative analysis of social issues into the framework of formal education. The social issues that are found to be at the core of concern are the following: a. Lack of scientific land-water management. b. Issue related to agriculture. c. Lack of cohesive universal vision. d. Lack of human resource development. e. Lack of cultural consciousness. f. Issues of the marginalized sections of the society. g. Lack of eco-friendly industrialization. h. Inadequate knowledge related to health and public life. These issues are developed and sensitized using various discourses which provide a linguistically rich environment in the classrooms. The new course book is an attempt to find out what literary and creative skills are 72 needed for such collaborative participation at different levels. KCF 2007 provided teachers with more scope for developing a creative approach to English classrooms than the traditional classrooms. Moreover, it laid importance on integrating the four macrolevel skills (LSRW) of language. 3.3 KCF in a Nutshell KCF 2007 acknowledged that English language learning has an important role to play in this globalized world. The curriculum revision of 1997 was based on the principles of modern psychology and other learning theories. Even though this curriculum revision incorporated the modern principles of language learning, the dominance of behaviourist model in language learning was identified by the academicians. This realization led the academicians to enhance the quality of English language learning. KCF viewed language learning as an organic whole, not as an isolated practice. Being a cyclical process, language learning is seen as a natural growth of an innate language system. The discourse making would get more prominence in text books based on KCF 2007and KCF 2013. The new curriculum framework asserted that language learning is a discursive practice. The discourse constructions such as choreography, interview, feature writing etc are included in the secondary level English text books, which are the textual corpora of the present study. The teachers were expected to sharpen learners’ reflection through developing creative/critical/analytical thinking. English language learning based on KCF 2007 promoted the use of authentic materials which are learner-friendly in nature. The constructivist paradigm shift marks a difference in the attitude towards the perception of knowledge. Constructivists generally believe that knowledge is not a fixed object, but a construct. The process of knowing is more important than knowledge as a product. In contrast to Behaviourism, Constructivism adopted cognitive approaches to theorize learning. Language 73 learning is considered as a lifelong process. The cognitive interactionist approach within the paradigm is a counter balance between linguistic autonomy of the learner and the social interactions of the external world. The paradigm shift also redefined the role of teachers and learners. 3.4 The Relevance of course books The selection of course books is considered to be an important aspect of curriculum planning because course books are more authentic and credible than any other learning material prescribed in the syllabus. O’Neil justified the use of textbooks by pointing out their sensitivity towards students’ needs and their efficiency in terms of time, money, adaptability and scope for improvisation (105-110). The effectiveness of the textbooks can be assured through the appraisal techniques like evaluation checklists which are consistent with the objectives stated within the curricular reform. The prevailing evaluation checklists of ELT textbooks follow some criteria regarding their methodology, layout, organization, learning content and how these factors harmonize within the textbooks. The present research critically analyses English course books largely based on KCF 2007 and KCF 2013. It mainly focuses on the textbooks, their content, different strategies, presentation of the content etc. These textbooks by State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT Kerala) are used in schools which follow the state syllabus. 3.5 Critical Analysis of Course Book Reader VIII The VIII standard textbook in general is only a gateway to the new paradigm shift. Therefore, the analysis of the textbook is divided into just two sections: general organization and the learning content 74 3.5.1 General Organization Course Book Reader VIII (Vol. 1 & 2) comprise 5 units altogether. The primary details such as publisher’s credentials, textbook committee details etc are given in the opening pages. The learning content/issues are clearly presented in the prefatory pages. One issue and one sub-theme are discussed in every unit and extended reading is given at the end of every unit. The supplementary texts in the traditional ESL syllabus are replaced by the extended reading section with more literary pieces. This section replaces ‘the traditional English II textbook’ which acts as supportive additions to the main lessons. The literary pieces are not merely meant for superficial reading. The new textbooks encourage suggestive and metaphorical reading of poems. They demand ‘a kind of reflective reading.’ There is a column ‘keep track of your reading’ provided within the text itself where the learners can reflect on or share their experiences about the lesson. A self assessment page is provided in each chapter. Reading, story/narrative, write-up, profile and editing are given as the sub headings of the self assessment page. These self assessment pages address multi level learners. The profile of the whole class in terms of the response may not be similar. Self assessment is one of the ways of developing the learners’ ZPD. 3.5.2 Content The textbook has five units. A summary of these units is given below: Unit I: On the Wings of Wishes Issue Domain: lack of human resource Sub themes: the importance of hard work and strong determinations in human life 75 The first unit consists of a poem “Dreams” by U.S poet Langston Hughes and a short story ‘When Wishes Come True’ by Rabindranath Tagore. The extended reading part includes Shakespeare’s Macbeth and Sarojini Naidu’s poem “Coromandal Fishers”. Unit II: On Telling a Tale Issue Domain: lack of cohesive universal vision Sub theme: lack of social mingling The second unit consists of a fable ‘The Mice that set the Elephants’ which is taken from The Panchathantra. A short story ‘The storyteller’ by Saki and ‘The Enchanted Shirt’, a poem by John Hay are included in it. The narrative poem “Matilda” by Hilaire Belloc and a short story ‘I can’t climb Trees Anymore’ by Ruskin Bond are included in the extended reading. Unit III: As We Sow So Shall We Reap Issue Domain: lack of eco-friendly industrialization, lack of scientific land- water management Sub theme: total imbalance in nature and environmental pollution. The third unit comprises “The River”, a poem by C.A Bowles and ‘In Search Our Mothers’ Gardens’, a memoir by Alice Walker. An abridged version of Gulliver’s Travels by J.Swift and “River”, a poem by Shuntaro Tanikawa are included in the extended reading. Unit IV: Within and Without Issue Domain: lack of cultural consciousness Sub issue: The need for upholding one’s individuality and culture 76 The fourth unit consists of a cartoon by R.K Laxman, a shortstory ‘Harrison Bergeron’ by Kurt Vonnegut and a poem, “The Bat” by Theodore Roethke. The extended reading includes ‘First Manned Flight to Venus’ by Jan Minter and “Sugarfields”, a poem by Barbara Mahone. Unit V: Being One with Nature Issue Domain: agriculture Subtheme: lack of awareness about agrarian culture The fifth unit consists of “Lines Written in March”, a poem by Wordsworth and ‘Three Questions’, a short story by Tolstoy. The extended reading part includes abridged version of Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe and “Daisy’s Song”, a poem by John Keats. 3.8 Coursebook Reader IX From Std. IX, there is a fully-loaded exploration into the new paradigm. Therefore, the analysis of the textbook is divided into general organization, content, methodology and textual techniques. 3.8.1 General Outline The two volumes of the course book comprise 6 units altogether. More literary genres like one-act play, editorials and cartoons are included in this text. The writers of different nations and different cultures are introduced through lessons like ‘The Son from America’, ‘To My Nanny’ etc. Many themes are used for building up the discourses in Standard IX. The themes have social and cultural relevance. 77 3.8.2 Content: This course book reader has six units. Unit I: Roots Issue Domain: Culture Sub issues: Importance of one’s roots, issues related to the immigrant population and the aged. The first unit consists of two poems and two short stories which are thematically linked together. The detailed short story, ‘The Son from America’, by I.B Singer is a diaspora literary piece. Both this short story and “The Tattered Blanket”, a poem by Kamla Das share the common theme of home-coming. The detailed poem “Those Winter Sundays” by Robert Hayden and a poem for extended reading “To My Nanny”, by Alexander Pushkin deal with the warmth of love and parental care. Unit II: Breaking Barriers Issue Domain: Issues of the marginalised Sub theme: gender issues This unit consists of Marathi poet Shanta Shelka’s poem “Even Past Fifty” and another poem “ Women” for extended reading by Louis Bogan depict the perennial plight and the existential crisis of middle-aged women. The one act play ‘The Princess on the Road’ by Kathleen Greene describes the adventures of a princess and a memoir ‘Only Daughter’ by Sandra Cisneros is a personal account of being ignored herself as a creative writer by her intimate relatives. 78 Unit III: Tales of Toil Issue Domain: lack of human resource Sub theme: dignity of labour and nurture a good work culture This unit consists of a detailed short story ‘The Man Who Knows Too Much’ by Alexander Baron which is thematically supplemented by ‘The Resignation’ by Premchand discusses the themes of grooming up interpersonal skills, soft skills among working groups and the dignity of labour in the work place. The poem “I am the People, the Mob” by Carl Sandburg depicts the value of people’s collective strength. The poem for extended reading “Follower” by Seamus Heaney depicts the cultural legacy of agrarian society. Unit IV: Glimpses of a Green Planet Issue Domain: lack of eco-friendly industrialization Sub themes: Issues of global warming and the contemporary environmental crisis This unit consists of an editorial of The Hindu-‘ Make the Right Choice’ and a memoir by M.T Vasudevan Nair thematically address the contemporary environmental issues of global warming,climate change and sand mining which eventually lead to ecological imbalance. The poem for detailed study “To Nature” by S.T Coleridge and the extended poems “The Grasshopper” and “The Cricket” by John Keats highlight the glory of nature and its romantic charm. 79 Unit V: Guns and Roses Issue Domain: lack of cohesive universal vision Sub issue: War and Peace This unit consists of a detailed short story ‘An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge’ by A.G Bierce depicts the agony of a soldier who is hanged to death. The extended short story ‘The Colonel’s Ideas’ by Guy de Maupassant is about how tender feelings can change chivalrous soldiers. The detailed poem “General, Your Tank is a powerful Vehicle” by Brecht is an ironical poem about the ramifications of power. The extended poem “Mass” by Caesar Vallejo is a poem about the healing power of love. Unit VI: Mirroring the Times Issue Domain: lack of cohesive universal vision and lack of cultural consciousness Sub themes: the role of Mass media in the present society This unit consists of an introductory article ‘The Mass Media’ is about the diverse functions of mass media including infotainment programmes. The poem “Television” by Roald Dahl is a satirical poem about visual media culture and the extended reading passage ‘The Initial Days of Doordarsan’ by P.V.Krishnamoorthy is a personal narrative of the history of telecast in India. 3.9. Course Book Reader X The discussion is divided under three sub topics. 3.9.1 General Outline The book contains two parts consisting of five units. Varieties of literary genres are included in this book like short story, poem, speech, one act play, limerick, interview, article, screenplay, song etc. The learners are suggested to familiarize with a galaxy of writers like T.S. Eliot, Ressul 80 Pookkutty, Akiora Kurosaw Arthur Conan Doyle Octavio Paz, Gabriel Okara, Winthrop Parkhust etc. 3.9.2 Content: This course book has five units and the gist is given below: Unit I: Generations Issue Domain: Absence of a vision of universal humanism Sub theme: Generation gap The first unit ‘Generations’ makes the learners understand the cultural varieties of English in a post-colonial context. The Indian English writers like Anita Desai, R.K. Narayan, Nissim Ezekiel and Gabriel Okara (Nigerian Poet) are introduced in the unit. The detailed short story ‘Father’s Help’ by R.K Narayan highlights the importance of developing individual perspectives. The extended short story ‘Games at Twilight’ by Anita Desai is about a child’s affection towards his family. The detailed poem “Night of the Scorpion” by Nissim Ezekiel is about a traumatic state of the poet’s mother stung by the scorpion. The extended poem “Once upon a Time” by Gabriel Okara examines the juxtaposed attitudes of two generations. Unit II: The World of Mystery Issue Domain: lack of scientific approach to health and public health affairs Sub theme: promotion of deviant experience This unit consists of the detailed short story ‘The Man Who Shouted Teresa’ by Italo Calvino a philosophical story and the extended excerpt ‘Steel True Blade’ by Arthur Conan Doyale. The other short story ‘The Blue Bouquet’ by Octavio Paz is loaded with magical realist elements. The poem “The Himalayas” by Sujata Bhatt depicts poetry as a creative process. 81 Unit III: Reality to Reel Issue Domain: lack of human resource development Sun theme: cultural value of cinema This unit consists of a detailed interview ‘The Wizard of Sound’ with Resul Pookutty. The article ‘Tea-shops in Malayalam Cinema’ by C.S Venkiteswaran attempts to address the socio-cultural relevance of tea-shops in early Malayalam movies. By projecting teashops as a platform for public discourse in popular films, he observes the public spaces are the places where the hierarchical power structure is destabilized. Popular films after 1950s symbolically presented ‘public platforms’ as a symbolised site of national integration and unity in diversity. Akaira Kurosawa’s screenplay ‘Sunshine through the Rain’ is a screen plan which evokes powerful visual images. The rock song ‘Celluloid Heroes’ is also included in the extended reading part. Unit IV: Upon the Thrones of Life Issue Domain: lack of due consideration towards marginalised groups Sub theme: Poverty and suffering of resistance against exploitation This unit consists of Winthrop Parkhurst‘s one act play ‘The Beggar and the King’ which questions the hierarchical structure of power system. Chekhov’s short story ‘The Bet’ philosophically questions the state of being free. K. Satchidanandan’s poem “Cactus” depicts the unacknowledged strength and beauty of the marginalized group. W.H Davies’s poem “In the Country” depicts a comparison between rural and rustic life. Unit: Art and Attitudes Issue Domain: lack of understanding of the specificities in cultural identity Sub theme: aesthetic aspects of life 82 This unit consists of a detailed short story ‘Balthazar’s Marvellous Afternoon’ by Gabriel Garcia Marquez and it differentiates between the concepts of art and craft. The speech piece ‘Art that Heals’ by Karl Paulnack deals with the healing power of music. The two poems “The Master” by F. Morgan and “The Arrow and The Song” by H.W.Long Fellow depict the optimistic spirit of artists. 3.10. Methodology and textual activities Poems are mostly given as the introductory part of each unit. The prose takes the major share of the unit. In traditional classrooms, prose pieces used to be monotonous texts to be read and comprehended. The sequencing of prose is divided into each piece of the section and each section is to be discussed in order to reach a holistic conclusion of the prose in the new textbooks. It improves the analytical and logical thinking of the learners. One chief characteristic of the conventional course books is a set of comprehension questions that are attached to each lesson. But a variety of questions is needed to understand different types of meanings such as inferential, referential, personal and implied. Lee observes that “display questions are central resources whereby language teachers and students organize their lessons and produce language pedagogy”( 691). Such varieties of questions are given in the margins of the lessons and these make readers understand and read between the lines. Interaction is another technique used in both traditional and constructivist classroom transactions. The one-sided interaction (interaction between the teacher and the learners) was practised in traditional classrooms. The constructivist classrooms promote not only the interaction between teacher and learner but also interaction among peers and interaction between the learner and the learning material. The constructivist textbooks based on KCF 2007 follow the cognitive interactionist approach. The construction of knowledge is initially developed through social interaction (here classrooms) 83 and slowly internalized as a part of the cognitive structure of the learner. Mondada and Doehlier stated: This approach involves the learner as a co-constructor of joint activities, where linguistic and other competencies are put to work within a constant process of adjustment vis-à-vis other social agents and in the emerging context (qtd in Najafi and Shirzadi 65). 3.11. Presentation of the Issues: This can be illustrated by ‘As We Sow So Shall We Reap’ (Reader VIII 81). Fig.1 An illustration of a flowing river is given above. The following questions are given below the picture. 84 1. Where is the river born? 2. Where does it spend its younger days? 3. What happens to the river when it approaches the ocean? 4. Does a river grow and vanish? How? 5. Share your experiences with your friends The interaction begins with an illustration. The learners are asked to look at the picture and respond to those questions. All these questions make the learners generate language rather than reproduce language mechanically. While keeping all these questions in mind, the learners can create a mind map of what this lesson aims at . Another example, a poem , can be taken from Unit II ( Reader IX 126). Fig.2 85 There is a box given in this lesson which guides the learners to appreciate a poem through reflective questions like: a. Have I begun in striking manner? b. Have I been able to quote lines to support my views? c. Have I been able to suggest new ideas in my writing? Through the questions given in the box, the learners are able to appreciate the poem with their individual thinking. These questions only support or scaffold the thinking of the learners. Another poem “Night of the Scorpion” by Nissim Ezekiel is taken from standard X Reader. The textual activities of this poem motivate the learner to classify different visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile images employed in the poem. Another textual activity from the same lesson asks the learner to find out multiple levels of meaning and symbols employed in the poem. A tenth standard student may not be familiar with literary terms like images and symbols, but the textual activities are intended to internalize these concepts by engaging themselves to appreciate the poem with its aesthetic vigor. The advanced textual activities of Std X suggest a more formalistic approach to the literary pieces. 86 Fig. 3 87 3.12. Presentation of Discourse Construction and Textual Activities Almost all textual activities are given as part of post reading session. The learners are sensitized on the particular issue and its sub themes. Each textual activity is designed as a specific discourse in which the micro-process of discourse construction involves; (a) Individual construction (b) Presentation by a few individuals (c) Sharing group for refinement (d) Presentation by the groups (e) The presentation of the facilitator’s version of the targeted discourse. Here follows a textual activity for discourse making (debate and group discussion based on Alexander Baron’s short story ‘The Man Who Knows Too Much’. The theme to be discussed in the story is the issue of the marginalized. Debate In the light of your discussion conduct a debate on: Th victimization of Private Quelch for his outspokenness to his superiors. Arguments for: He was working in the army that demanded hierarchical discipline. He was bound to tolerate the authority of his superiors. Arguments against: If you are better than your superiors, why can’t you show it? Add your points to support your arguments in the space provided. (Kerala English Reader IX 72) 88 Before this individual task, a collaborative task of group discussion is given at first in the class. The theme of the short story is given and some of the analytical questions are put below this story. The same lesson also presents another item of discourse making-how to prepare features. The presentation is described below: As an end product of this unit, prepare a feature on skilled labourers or professionals in your locality. a. Your may have to conduct an interview with a skilled labourer or a professional in your locality to know more about the nature of his/her work. Discuss in groups and develop a questionnaire for the interview. b. On the basis of the interview conducted by the members of a group, prepare a feature on the nature and type of work done by people in your locality. You may use photographs of individuals/their places of work etc (ibid. 73). Feature writing is considered to be a difficult task for IX standard students. The discourse tasks are given here to sensitize the learners as to how a logical and coherent thought develops into a feature, as an end product of group discussion, debate and review.  One act plays (The Beggar and the King-Standard X and The Princess on the Road-Standard IX) are introduced in this new textbook. The theatre is seen as a space that can treat language holistically by virtue of the discourses like drama and choreography. A story and a drama share common components like plot, sequenced events, action, character and dialogue. The learners are supposed to transact the indicators like dialogue presentation, audibility, voice modulation, body language of the characters, their facial expressions, stage sense, 89 the characters’ movements etc. The facilitator can ask learners to play the part of each character and make the classroom a theatre. A textual activity (Standard X 83) asks the learner to make an announcement before the staging of the play. The facilitator can scaffold them to consolidate these indicators: o Title o List of Characters o Scene o Stage setting o Entry and exit of the characters Choreography related to a play is also a pedagogical tool for facilitating language development. A good choreography is a visual treatment in which themes are conveyed to the viewers. It is worked out based on a well planned script. It is a theatrical mode in which themes can be visualized in a variety of ways and language can be generated through different discourses. Classroom theatres become good platforms for the oral communication of the learners. The preparation of script writing or choreographing a poem will help the learners internalize language skills and soft skills. These theatrical performances give ample opportunities for indulging in collaborative or cooperative learning.  The new textbooks use the constructivist discourses using films, interviews and screenplays. The interview with Ressul Pookutty, the Oscar award winner from Kerala discusses the role of technicians in the making of a film (Class X, Unit III). Through the reflective questions, the learners understand that the film is a collective effort by 90 many people including technicians and actors. Films as cultural texts are widely studied by academicians at present. Film as a mass medium influences the learners tremendously. The Wizard of the sound focuses more on the impact of sound and effect in the making of a film. The next article ‘Teashops in Malayalam Cinema’ discusses particular locations that reigned in the Malayalam film industry for quite some time. The textual activity (i & ii) of the same unit make learners think about the role of tea shop and its cinematic representation in the evolution of Kerala’s Modernity. The following activities are designed to make new discourses like a questionnaire for the interview, prepare a storyline of a film with the help of different websites and also prepare a list of the film crew who are involved in the making of a film. Activity xii prepares learners to review a film they have seen. The description can be quoted by (Kerala Reader X 80-82). Tips Do you like the film? You may say ‘Yes/No’ Rewriting The points to be discussed in this session based on the discussions, the film is to be rated as ‘excellent, ‘good,’ or ‘poor’. Drafting o This part discusses how to begin and develop the essay and end it. o A couple of peer reviews are given in this box on the movie Titanic. o With these gradual processes of writing, the learners are expected to write a film review. 91 o Here we can see that the constructivist textbooks encourage the active involvement of the learners in learning. Fig. 4 Another example of discourse analysis is taken from ‘Guns and Roses’ (SCERT textbook part 2). ‘Guernica’, a painting by Pablo Picasso is given as the starter for the lesson. (fig.5) 92 Fig. 5 Discussion questions follow: Does the painting by Picasso evoke any feeling in you? (i) What do you see in the painting above? (ii) Does it show a calamity/tragedy? (iii) What details support your view? (iv) How does the calamity/tragedy affect the lives of innocent people? Every discourse in this text is supposed to establish a framework for analyzing language in its relation to social issues and ideology of power. Different kinds of discourse analysis are presented along with the main prose or poem. Reflexive questions and space provided for answers are given on the margins in each lesson. The introductory discourse pieces like painting, newspaper cutting, cartoon are given before the lesson of every unit in the text. All these discourse pieces intend to sensitize the learners about these issues. 3.13 Paradigm shift and New textbooks  One of the major transitions from old text books to new textbooks is to develop critical thinking through different discourse analysis activities. 93 Discourse analysis is fundamentally concerned with the relationship between language and the context of its use. It covers all our verbal encounters that we daily come across like newspaper articles, letters, stories, billboards, films and advertisements. Since language is emergent and polyphonic in meaning, the language texts should accomplish social acts. Transactional texts are associated with the purpose of communicating ideas between individuals. A reflexive text assumes that different individuals have different views on the same reality and derive different meanings from the same situation. New textbooks are designed on the lines of transactional and reflexive texts. They assume mutual understanding of any single situation can only result from construction of a convergent view of the situation. Reflexive textbooks evoke multiple points of view and generate mutual self awareness among the participants.  The behaviuorist textbooks treated LSRW skills of language separately. They used to give instructions like ‘read aloud’, ‘listen and do’; ‘say it this way’ etc. The new textbooks treat the four skills as an organic whole within an authentic setting. The learners are asked to write a review/or prepare a write-up and discuss it with peer groups. This process of transferring information can be achieved in the classroom by replicating these real world connections between the skills. Here follows a language game activity – ‘When Things Speak’’ (Reader X 78). It follows: 94 Fig. 6 95 Who is the speaker of the following? (1) My son is a metre and my baby is a centimetre. On a racing car I am driving in 10 seconds. (2) Write what the following say about them. (i) Tree (ii) Shadow (iii) River (iv) Bird All the LSRW skills and additional skills like analytical and creative skills are also incorporated in this language game. The different approach towards LSRW skills in constructivist discourses evolved through discussion, brainstorming and debate. The textbooks present the process of selection, framing of a topic, organization of materials, expression of arguments in effective language.  The reflective discourses and discourse activities make learners understand that argumentative/critical reading or writing is primarily logical rather than emotional communication. The present day language textbooks emphasize the notion that reflective thinking is necessary for a complete and comprehensive understanding of any subject. According to Dewey, a reflective approach will necessitate the learners’ sharp scrutiny of language in its relation to thought itself. The words and phrases in the discourses used by them or by others are supposed to be referential, concrete and contributory to clear thinking (“How we Think” ch.13). Most of the cognitive and social aspects of language activities in these text books match the developmental needs of the learners. The revised textbooks of 2013 proposed Mind Maps as a strategy of organizing text. A mind map is a diagram used to visually organize information. The term ‘mind map’ was first used and popularized by Tony Buzan. The teachers can start 96 the centre with an image of the topic. It can be images, symbols, codes and dimensions. The lines should be connected, starting from the central image. A mind map should integrate LSRW skills. A mind map encapsulates concepts in a grid (Anandan, “Freedom” ch.8).  Discourse analysis becomes an important learning concept in language teaching because language constitutes experiences. The dialectical relationship between language and experience help learners to understand different perspectives in the world. The constructivists also believe that language plays an important role in the construction of experiences. The new paradigm projects teachers and students as active agents of classroom discourse as a topic of speech. Heteroglossia implies that there are multiple meanings of language that can be realized through different interpretations (Bakhtin 356-357). The development of language, derived from home school, the workplace, and the community, helps define and establish the ways of human life within a certain context. Diane observes that dialogue as a primary condition of discourse in all social acts ( qtd. in Chowdhary 130). Classrooms are the places where the language can be created, re- created, adopted, adapted and engaged in a full range of human interaction. Language discourse involves complex social, cultural, political, cognitive and linguistic processes. In traditional classrooms, teachers dominated the classroom activities; students had fewer opportunities to ask questions or generate subtopics.  Writing is the most neglected skill among LSRW. Traditional text books gave more importance to reading comprehension and reading skill. The DPEP text books concentrated more on the functional/speaking aspects of language. It is interesting to find that the skill of writing gets more space in the new text book. The skill of 97 writing demands accuracy in grammar, lexicon and structure. During the behavioural method, the grammar lessons focused more on grammatical structures and exercises. With the emergence of cognitive and constructivist approaches, writing is perceived as a social act. The sub-skills of writing like grammar, vocabulary, syntax, the process of writing etc. are treated in a different manner.  Vocabulary learning receives special attention in the new textbooks. The behavioural textbooks listed graded vocabulary at the end of the textbook whereas learners are asked to keep a ‘personal word list’ at the end of new text books. There is a simplified ‘personal word list entry’ prescribed for VIII standard students. The IX and X standard students are also asked to fill the personal word list for the each unit. Glossary is a new form of vocabulary entry given in the new text. The more complicated technical/literary terms are included in this list. The personal word list is to be completed by a learner of her own choice. The personal word list gives the learner more autonomy in the learning process by finding out how words work. The introduction of vocabulary is done in a style that makes it interesting to the learners.  Back to the Roots Do you know? The world ‘chair’ came from the Latin word ‘Cathedra’ which means the seat of the Bishop. The Malayalam word Kasera is also from ‘Cathedra’. The study of the origin and the developments in the meaning of words is called ‘etymology.’- 98 Fig. 7 Now, find out the etymology of the following words. You may refer to a dictionary, better an etymological dictionary. You may also search the site http://www.etymonline.com puzzle, devil, assistant. (Kerala English Reader Part I,15) 99 The loan words are introduced to the standard X advanced learners. A small part introduces two new items of vocabulary. They are ‘loan words’ and ‘etymology’. Another example is taken from the vocabulary activities: I tossed my cigarette onto the sidewalk. ‘Sidewalk’ is a flat part at the side of a road for people to walk on (57). ‘Sidewalk’ is an American word. Its equivalent in British English is ‘pavement’. An exercise is given to replace the American English words by British English words by using a dictionary. The first example is taken from the same story. The Blue Bouquet is written by Octavio Paz. The learners are sensitized to engage with the different varieties of English. Teaching vocabulary in the new paradigm is more in familiar learning context. The new textbooks set vocabulary as a language item not for producing or comprehending a particular message, but for gaining knowledge about the item as part of the language system.  Teaching grammar has regained its place in the language curriculum in recent times. The old textbooks presented the traditional grammar- based methodologies such as presentation-practice-production lesson format which were adapted to both the Situational Approach and Skill based teaching. The new textbooks teach descriptive grammar in which a set of grammatical rules are based on how language is actually used whereas the traditional textbooks followed prescriptive grammar. Teaching grammar demands learner-friendly atmosphere through varieties of activities like games, rhymes, riddles and role-plays in new text books. The new textbooks teach prescriptive grammar. The prescriptive grammar aims at developing conscious grammatical competence. Grammatical concepts are to be constructed by the 100 learners by analysing a certain body of linguistic data available from the discourses and categorizing them in specific ways. The treatment towards grammar is different from classes to classes in the new textbooks. The editing part takes the lion’s share of textual activities in VIII standard whereas the grammatical structures lead in IX and X standard respectively. The editing passages belong to different levels of editing as mentioned below: (i) Editing related to sentence grammar-This includes syntactic and morphological editing. (ii) Errors related to discourse grammar- They include thematic editing and editing related to discourse features. The self assessment of editing page includes questions like: (i) Was I able to locate the punctuation errors and correct them? (ii) Did I identify errors in word order, missing words and excess words? (iii) Did I correct the wrong forms of words? (iv) Was I able to identify the misspelt words? (v) Was I able to identify the features of the given discourse and refine it? These questions indicate the fact that the general processes of editing are intact for facilitating concept attainment in the realm of grammar. Construction of knowledge has to take place at all levels of learning and in all domains of knowledge. Grammatical concepts are to be constructed by the learners by analysing a certain body of linguistic data available from the discourses and categorizing them in specific ways. 101 The grammatical structures and usages within task words are given in IX and X standard levels. The grammar is presented through a communicative task which is a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language while their attention is principally focussed on meaning rather than form. An extract is illustrated from an Activity (Class IX 152-3). Read the following sentence from ‘An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge’.  A man stood upon the railroad bridge in Northern Alabama, looking (bold it) down into the Swift water twenty feet below.  By diving, I could evade the bullets.  They shouted pointing at him. Discussion Points  Can the bold italicized words be split into look + ing, dive + ing etc.  Do they act as verbs in the sentences above?  What is their function in each of the sentences given above? Let’s sum up  The italicized words above are formed by adding ‘-ing’ to the root verb.  In the first sentence it is used to show one of the two actions performed by the same person at the same time. 102  In the second sentence it shows one of the two actions performed by the same person, one resulting from the other. It is used after the preposition ‘by’.  In the third sentence it is used to slow one of the two actions performed by the same group of persons simultaneously.  The italicized words in the above sentences are the present participle forms of the verbs. Then some exercises are given below.  The new textbooks focused on task-focused activities which reflect natural language use and reflect automatic performance. After generating awareness about the fundamental characteristics of grammatical structures, focussed practice /exercises are given to gain proficiency in the skill of grammar and writing; such planned support may be in the form of grammatical inputs, exercises in relevant vocabulary, elicitation of appropriate ideas and themes. Some activities in the form of organizing notes, ordering of sentences and paragraphs to generate coherence, insertion of missing information into a given text or combining simpler sentences to make more complex and loaded articulation.The focused practice aims at gaining proficiency among the learners. After attaining proficiency, they are encouraged to create texts from relevant topics. They gradually proceed towards independent creation of logical, coherent; meaningful and creative writing. As soon as the meaning making process is completed, the teacher/facilitator can interact with the learners by asking some reflective, analytical or linking questions. The facilitator’s scaffolding aims at multiple perspectives like generating multiple perspectives on the theme, identifying 103 the point of view, instilling value systems and helping the low proficient learners (Anandan, “ Freedom” ch 6). 3.14 Constructivist Strategies The theory of Multiple Intelligence (MI), which propounds the plurality of intelligence, was conceived by Howard Gardner. Gardner’s 8 subdivisions of intelligence are of great pedagogical relevance in the present scenario.NCF 2005 realizes the pedagogical relevance of MI theory and recommends incorporating it in the curriculum. According to Gardner human beings possess eight types of intelligences. They are given below:  Verbal-Linguistic intelligence This type of intelligence helps learners construct various linguistic discourses. This intelligence helps us learn and use different words and usages in its syntactical patterns.  Logical Mathematical Ability This type of intelligence helps us analyse problems logically. It helps to establish cause and effect relationship and to organize different events in a sequential manner. The textual activities like narrative gaps and crossword puzzles help learners to improve it.  Visual- Spatial Intelligence This type of intelligence helps to create mental images. The textual activities like preparing posters, wall magazines and story-narration based on stories help us to sharpen this intelligence.  Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence This type of intelligence helps to learn things through bodily movements. The language activity like role play helps to improve it. 104  Musical Intelligence It helps to produce and appreciate musical rhythms, tone and pitch.  Interpersonal Intelligence It is related with individual’s SQ (social quotient).Textual tasks like participating in discussion, agreeing or disagreeing opinions, making arguments help to develop this intelligence.  Intrapersonal Intelligence This type of intelligence helps to understand and analyse one’s strength and weakness. Textual activities like reflective writing and diary writing are its examples.  Naturalistic Intelligence This intelligence is related with one’s eco- consciousness. Classroom discourses like preparing write-up on environmental issues enhance this kind of intelligence (Herndon 2-3). The theory of MI gives a broad and complex perspective of the teaching -learning process, which involves learners with different cognitive realms. Imbibing the crux of MI, the new texts books provide ample learning experiences for learners to sharpen their pluralistic intellect. Some of the constructivist strategies like Picture Word Inductive Model, DRTA (Directed Reading Thinking Activity) are incorporated in new textbooks.  Picture Word Inductive Model: The students are shown pictures or cartoons and ask questions which encourage their reflective thinking. This model helps to enhance observation, comprehension and appreciation skills. 105  DRTA: It is a reading comprehension strategy which involves three levels of reading like pre- reading, during reading and post reading. It helps the students to predict and verify things, based on their logical intelligence (Sharaon and Vallone ch.4). 3.15. ICT as a learning strategy A dimensional change has been introduced in the field of language methodology with the rapid growth of ICT. Constructivist classrooms and new text books promote teacher- oriented ICT experiences. Some of the useful URLs for English learning are given in the textbooks.Using computers or language learning software can make classrooms more vibrant and dynamic than the traditional teacher-centred classrooms. The technology- supported education strategies help students to learn at their pace and convenience. Learning becomes more individualised in ICT classrooms. 3.16 Source book/hand book/teacher text: These are always used as a guidance (instructional) manual for teachers. Handbooks generally include the summary of the lesson, how to present it in the class, how to evaluate etc. Each unit is allowed within a short span of 5-6 periods. The teacher can teach the lessons accordingly. Teacher text/source books become more teachers-friendly in the constructivist paradigm. The handbook stands at the position of an authority, and instructs the teachers ‘What to do’ in the behavioral class rooms. In the constructivist paradigm, teacher text suggests the teachers prepare themselves to be fit in a learner-centered classroom. Teacher’s role has been changed to that of a role of facilitator. Teacher textbooks concentrate more on reflective teaching.A reflective approach to teaching enables the learners to collect data about their own 106 teaching, examine their attitudes, beliefs, teaching practice etc. Reflections made by the teacher are seen as the higher stage of professional growth. Reflective practice includes self questioning about the way she transacts a lesson is the class. Some of the common questions considered for this practice have been formulated by Jack. C. Richards and Charles Lockhart (1996). They are given below: 1. What am I doing in the classroom method? 2. How can I collect information about my own teaching? 3. Why am I doing this? 4. What is the result? 6. What criteria do I use to evaluate my teaching? 7. What is my role as a teacher? The systematic and structural process of reflective teaching aims at developing personal change and more effective practice.The revised teacher text includes a reflective note at the end of every unit. The new handbooks (teacher texts in revised texts – KCF– 2013) generally concentrate on the thematic/issue divisions of the units. It comments upon the crux of each unit and gives general information about the author. The handbooks (KCF 2007) give a syllabus grid at the end of every unit touching upon the major pedagogical activities of the lesson. The old handbooks of behavioural methods gave stringent time schedule for finishing each lesson. The new teacher textbooks do not follow such a schedule because they are more process oriented. The procedures for instruction and its nuanced technique are given more importance in teacher texts. 107 3.17 Evaluation Without mentioning evaluation, this study will not be completed in terms of the realization of constructivist curriculum paradigm. The shift from a behavioural method to a constructive approach calls for a different perspective on assessment. Language acquisition is viewed as an organic process by the constructivists. It may be very difficult to assess what the learner has acquired at a given point of time. The new paradigm proposes Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) at all levels of language learning. The behavioural methods tested rote memory of the learners. Since constructivist pedagogy aims at developing learner autonomy, each and every stage of learning process will be the self-regulatory process.Such self- evaluation process is a process which is held at the sub conscious or non- conscious level within the individual which cannot be assessed by anybody with the help of testing measurements. The revised text books (KCF 2013) are provided with self assessment checklists at the end of every unit. The learners are given an opportunity to self-check their performance after undertaking various linguistic tasks. There are some indicators for assessing each discourse. Exams are still continued to be the king of evaluation system. The new paradigm envisages the examinations should be process-oriented one. In traditional approach, exams were product oriented rather than process-oriented. Most of the questions are text book-oriented or questions are directly taken from textual exercises, were included in old question paper models. Rote memorisation was only tested in such system. More comprehensive/reading comprehensive questions are included in new paradigm.Comprehension questions check learner’s analytical and reasoning skills. Functional writing style is examined in exams. It gives learners more room for creative thinking. The functions of various discourses 108 are examined with thematic precision. This new paradigm follows grade system which is a more flexible assessment scheme. 3.18 Comparison between KCF 2007and KCF 2013 Textbooks During the course of the present study, the curriculum framework was revised in 2013. The recommendations made by The Right to Education of 2009,Dr.P.K Abdul Aziz Committee Report and Prof. P.O.J Labba committee Report necessitated the revision of the curriculum. KCF 2007 and KCF 2013 share the same theoretical principles of constructivism. Both the textbooks based on KCF 2007 and KCF 2013 respectively shares the same theoretical focus of constructivism. Since the present study is about the constructivist paradigm, the researcher decides to focus on the textbook /sourcebook corpora of KCF 2007 as the representation of the paradigm shift. This sub section is an attempt to give an explicit comparison between KCF 2007 and KCF 2013. Some of the observations are given below:  The new texts books especially the revised texts books (KCF 2013) put forward a new concept called organic reading and writing.Organic reading and writing assume the vocabulary and grammar which are supposed to pick up non-consciously. The writing tasks must be need- based which can involve the learner’s full-attention. Development of language skills can be improved by embedding skills in meaningful contexts provided through discourse level experience. The linguistic output of the learners will be refined in terms of sentence grammar and discourse features. NCF 2005 provided teachers with more opportunities for developing creative approach to English language classrooms.NCF proposed ‘technicist’ approach to writing which negated personal choice and 109 author’s aims.The technicist approach involves the learner being taught certain skills before they are able to construct texts of their own. This approach is partly contested because it assumes not only prior knowledge on the part of the learner but also it can lead to a very mechanistic mode of teaching and learning in which language is systematically deconstructed at word and sentence level.  A slight regression is observed from the constructivist textbooks (KCF 2007) to the constructivist textbook (KCF 2013). Even though both of these text books are based on constructivist paradigm, the revised textbooks tried to localize issues and include lessons from the known- situation of the learners. There is no extended reading part included in the text.  The textbook’s layout and graphics are comparatively better than that of first module textbooks of KCF 2007. But the learning objectives are clearly presented in both of these textbooks.  KCF 2007 proposed issue-based curriculum whereas KCF 2013 proposed values, attitudes-oriented education. The revised curriculum focused more on constitutional values like democratic outlook, secular attitude and tolerance.  The treatment towards grammar and vocabulary is slightly changed from the earlier one. The revised textbooks stressed a more a kind of form-focused grammatical accuracy. The revised textbooks included more grammar lessons and rule bounded grammar structures. The fundamental aspects of grammar got more prominence than the writing activities. Grammar exercises are instructed with the help of grammar rules. It followed the formal techniques of teaching vocabulary and grammar. The slight regression can be observed in the presentation of 110 grammatical items which follow PPP (Presentation, Practice and Production) model.  Reflective questions are cut short in the main prose/poem lessons. More linking questions are added instead of adding analytical questions. More straight forward questions are given in the texts which are seemed to be more examination- oriented. In short, these textbooks based on KCF 2007 and KCF 2013 share the same theoretical footing of constructivism. However, the new textbooks tend to follow more prescriptive grammar exercises and other task-based learning strategies. 111 INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. CHAPTER IV DATA ANALYSIS PART I 4.1 Introduction This chapter discusses the research design, data collection techniques and analytical tools used for the study. 4.2 Methodology The present study was done with the help of descriptive survey method. Best and Kahn described the survey method as the best method to gather data from a number of cases at a particular time. According to them “It is not concerned with the statistics that result when data are abstracted from a number of individual cases”(117). The descriptive survey places primary importance on studying small samples of deliberately chosen individuals; not attempting to control contextual factors, but rather seeking, through a variety of methods to understand things from the informants’ point of view; and creating a rich, holistic in-depth picture of the phenomena under investigation. Less emphasis is given on statistics and more interest is given on the individual and his/her immediate contexts. It was assumed in the present study that the selected participants represented a cross-section of the teachers/learners in the state. They belonged to different backgrounds including urban, semi-urban and rural areas. A survey was conducted in five out of the fourteen districts of Kerala. The survey technique focused on capturing the ground reality at the grass root level. It was highly difficult to conduct a survey among the fourteen districts of Kerala. The representative responses from five districts, varying in 113 different socio-economic backgrounds, could be provided to cover the educational scenario of the state. The representative samples of 300 and 20 teachers who taught them were from 5 districts. It was imperative to collect relevant data from the actual field and to get a realistic picture of it. This investigator decided to take three types of regions in Kerala as representative samples of the present day scenario of secondary level English teachers. These were ‘urban’, ‘semi-urban’ and ‘rural’ divisions. The regional categorizations were done in order to capture the distribution of the diverse socio-economic conditions in the state. The socio-economic condition must have their impacts on English language teaching and its cultural ambience. Three districts were predominantly urban, one was relatively semi-urban and the other predominantly rural. The present survey could give a detailed and valid understanding of the academic scenario because the social/cultural/political issues like disparity between different regions within the state and the presence of linguistic minority students were reflected in it. It was a difficult task to take a balanced set of samples among the northern central and southern parts of Kerala. The representative samples were taken from Kasargod, Wayanad ,Kannur, Thrissur and Thiruvanathapuram based on their geographical and socio-economical representations. This distribution was made for the regional balance among South Kerala (Thiruvanathapuram), Central Kerala (Thrissur) and North Kerala (Kannur, Kasargod and Wayanad). The researcher initially planned to take samples from only three districts of major three regional divisions in Kerala. However, Wayanad and Kasargod were later added because these regions represented the population of indigenous tribes, settlers and linguistic minorities who largely came under socially underprivileged sections of the society, when compared to other districts of Kerala. One Government High School and one Aided School from each district were taken up for investigation in this survey. Thirty students and two teachers from each 114 school participated in this survey. The majority of the students belonged to co-educational institutions. The survey was conducted during the months of October -March in the academic year 2014 – 2015. Data collection was carried out over a period of six months. In the first phase, the questionnaire for students was administered in selected schools. Meanwhile, the researcher also contacted some of the parents and conducted interviews with them. The researcher personally visited the schools and distributed the questionnaires among teachers and students. The participants were randomly selected, depending on the geographical area, gender and socio-economic background. Since there was no officially published data available, the investigator primarily sought responses of both teachers and the students by using a set of questionnaires. The schools covered by the survey were Government and Government-aided schools, and the medium of instruction of the majority of them was Malayalam. Only three samples were taken from English-medium schools. In the second phase, this researcher administered a questionnaire among teachers. Meanwhile, several English teachers (HSA English) from different districts including Malappuram, Kozhikode, Palakkad and Alapuzha were interviewed for the study. 4.3 Research Tools The study was conducted by using qualitative and basic quantitative research tools. Qualitative questionnaire and quantitative questionnaire were used for this research. As Rebekha Abbuhl and Alison Mackay stated: Questionnaire can allow research to investigate phenomena such as perceptions or motivation that are not observable, as well as allow them to investigate sufficient qualities of observable phenomenon in a restricted time frame.(80) 115 The basic quantitative questionnaire was used to analyse statistical data (statistical percentage), whereas qualitative questionnaire was used for getting an in-depth analysis of the new paradigm. The triangulation methods were applied for collecting reliable data out of multiple data collection techniques. Both data triangulation (different sources of data) and method triangulation (multiple data collection techniques) were used in this research. A separate questionnaire was administered to both teachers and students at the beginning of the study of the target population. The objective of the survey was to analyse the effectiveness of constructivist approach to English language learning at the secondary level. This questionnaire tried to analyse the general attitude of both teachers and students. This survey was done in order to investigate the role of English in the secondary school curriculum, classroom interaction, teaching methodology, learner-teacher relationship, classroom activities, personal experience of teaching, peer group learning and its influence and feedback from the teachers. The main data collection instrument was the questionnaire. The other techniques of data collection were interviews, classroom observation, field notes and personal narratives. The investigator also added the list of schools that participated in the survey at the Appendix. 4.6 The Questionnaire for students Questionnaire was used as an effective research tool to measure a variety of issues within a short span of time. This research used both structured and un- structured questionnaires. The structured questionnaire followed the pattern of multiple choice formats which were close-ended with two or three multiple choices like ‘Yes/No/Not Sure’. The unstructured questionnaire followed a descriptive format which was open-ended. 116 The Multiple-Choice Questionnaire (MCQ) for students consisted of 43 questions. It was prepared in Malayalam because many of the students surveyed belonged to backward, remote regions and were not proficient enough in English. The investigator thought that the questions in Malayalam could help the learner to record their perceptions about the new paradigm in this survey. The questionnaire and the answers were translated into English by this investigator. The questionnaire contained two parts. The first part contained the personal data such as the name of the respondent, class, school, medium of instruction, date of birth, gender etc. The second part of the questionnaire contained the questions on perceptions about constructivism. The questions were placed in the beginning of the questionnaire and were comparatively easy to answer. The questions were sequenced in accordance with the subject matter. The questionnaire did not intend to test any of the four skills. A qualitative questionnaire was administered along with MCQ. This questionnaire consisting of five questions was meant to get a descriptive account of the new paradigm. Students were asked to write their opinions about English textbooks and English classrooms. While designing the tools for research, this investigator was not initially keen on including a questionnaire for teachers because this present study was supposed to include the students’ responses and classroom observation. However, it was found that a holistic study would not be possible without conducting a survey among the teachers. 4.7 The questionnaire for teachers The issue that the investigator studied was specifically related to the present context because English language curriculum based on the constructivist paradigm. Realising the winds of change, the teachers began to 117 support and encourage innovation and experimentation in the classrooms as they had in mind the qualitative change demanded by the educational policies. The teacher’s questionnaire consisted of 50 questions. All the questions had multiple answer options. Some questions had sub-sections. A qualitative questionnaire was also administered along with it. The teachers’ questionnaire was designed to obtain their opinions on the following: a. To know their attitudes about the new paradigm. b. To understand the general awareness of teachers about the objectives of the new paradigm shift. c. To know whether they follow critical discourse analysis in English classrooms. 4.8 Additional Research Tools Participant observation was employed as one of the important research tools in qualitative research. This field strategy involved direct observation, introspection, interviews etc. This researcher employed field notes as a research tool. Field notes are the records of what is seen and heard. Bodgan and Biklen state that field notes “render a description of people, objects, places, events, activities, reflections and hunches, as well as to note patterns that emerge” (110). Interviews were used as another technique. This researcher organized semi-structured interviews with teachers, parents, students and stakeholders. These interviews personally helped this investigator probe more into the implementation of the new paradigm. 4.9 Sampling of the Study A sampling procedure was a technique of selecting a sample from a given population. A statistical sample was a miniature picture or cross- 118 section of the entire group of aggregate from which the sample was taken. The entire group from which a sample was chosen is known as the ‘population, ‘universe’ or ‘supply’. Samples were not selected haphazardly for collecting representative data. A proper procedure should be adopted to estimate the influence of chance and probability. A good sample must be representative of the universe or population. It must be adequate to be reliable. For this study, the investigator followed simple random sampling technique. This was the simplest procedure of drawing a sample from a given population. The sample units were drawn at random without any consideration of the characteristics of the population units. Since each unit has an equal chance of being selected in the sample, this technique is sometimes known as an equal probability sampling. Though the process of selection is random in character, it is observed that a random sample is usually a representative sample and gives reasonably accurate data (Singh 85). It is assumed in this study that the selected participants represented a cross- section of the state and the researcher decided to have a random selection of two schools (one government and one government aided school) each from five districts.One division of the ninth (9th standard) standard was randomly chosen from each school and thirty students from each class of selected schools were randomly taken as students’ samples. Twenty teachers from the selected five districts were randomly chosen as teachers’ sample. Two teachers each from government schools and government aided schools were randomly chosen from the five districts for this study. There was a gender balance among both teachers and students who were surveyed. 119 4.10. Pilot Study for the Questionnaire Pilot study was a small-scale research which was designed to assess the feasibility of a research protocol by using research tools like questionnaire and interview schedule. Ried defined piloting as “a trying out of the instrument to determine which can be revised or eliminated” (325). Before conducting the survey, the investigator worked as an associate investigator for an assessment team of the Sadgamaya Project in 2013. The Sadgamaya Integrated Education Project was instituted by the Nilambur Municipality at Government Manavedan Vocational Higher Secondary School, Nilambur in 2011.This project was conceived with the realisation that the objectives of any educational project could be realized only if developed in tandem with local conditions even while keeping the broader national interests of education in mind. One of the main areas of intervention chosen for the project was its attention to Communicative English. During the investigation of the project, this researcher visited both this school and nearby secondary school. It was found that there were nagging problems in the implementation of new project. This pilot study tried to analyse the effectiveness of the new paradigm shift. During the field visit, multiple-choice questionnaires were administered among the teachers, students and parents. While analysing the questionnaires, the insight into the practical difficulties gained from this study invigorated to address and analyze these academic issues in a more generalized framework. Based on the experiences and feedback from teachers and students, this researcher included open-ended questionnaires in which the participants could reflect their thoughts and opinions clearly about the new paradigm. 120 4.11 Analysis of Questionnaire for Teachers This questionnaire for teachers consisted of fifty (50) close-ended questions with two or three multiple choices (Yes, No, Not sure). It contained two parts. The first part of the questionnaire elicited personal information about teachers to get a general socio-cultural profile of the teachers. The second part dealt with detailed questions which were presented in six sections. Some of the questions had subsections. These questions were basically set to understand the perceptions of the teachers about the new paradigm. 4.11.a. Teachers’ educational qualification and medium of instruction Section I of the questionnaire contained 7 questions. It related to the teachers’ educational qualification, their training etc. Question 1 was on whether the teachers were from English medium or not. 75% of the teachers were from Malayalam medium and 25% of the teachers were from English medium. Question 2 and 3 were about their educational qualifications. Question 2 was about whether the teachers graduated in English or not. 90% of the teachers had taken their graduation in English and only 10% of them graduated in other subjects (Table 4.1). 2. Are you a graduate in English language and literature? Questions Number of Yes No Administered respondents 20 20 18 2 Question 3 was on whether they took post graduation in English or not. 85% of the teachers were post graduates in English and only 15% were not post graduates. Most of the teachers were graduates of English. English was also taught by teachers who had graduated in Social Sciences, Mathematics 121 and Science till 2000 in many secondary schools across Kerala. This practice was observed as one of the reasons for the poor quality of English teaching in Kerala. The high percentage of English graduates among the teachers indicated a positive trend towards attaining quality in English teaching. 4.11.b. Pedagogical training, years of experience and in-service training experiences Question 4, 6 and 7 were about pedagogical training. Q. No.4 directly asked about whether they did their B.Ed course in English or not. 85% of them did their B.Ed in English and 15% of others did their B.Ed. in other subjects. Even though the government implemented a rule that only English- trained graduates should teach English at secondary schools, there was a small percentage of non-English graduate teachers still teaching English at secondary levels. Question 5 was about the years of teaching experience. 65% of teachers had completed 5 or more years of teaching and the rest of them were only probationers in service. Question 6 was a question with a subsection about whether they attended any in-service course. 65% of them attended in service course and 35% of the rest did not attend any in-service course. The sub section of the question related to the institutions from where they did their in-service courses. 38.46% of the teachers did their in-service training from other institutes and 30.77% of these teachers did their course from DIET and 30.77% of them did their course from RIE, Bangalore and EFLU, Hyderabad. Question 7 was on whether they got academically benefitted from these programmes or not. 80% of them responded to the question. The rest 20 % of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 81.25% of them 122 thought that they got academically benefitted from this course and 18.75% of them thought that they did not get academic benefit from this programme. The second section of the questionnaire discussed the nature of new syllabus, its curricular objectives, and the difference between behaviourist and constructive classrooms. 4.12.a. Adaptation to new curriculum Question 8 was on whether they could cope with the new syllabus or not. 84.2% of them could cope with the new syllabus 10.5% of them could not cope with it. A meagre 5.3 % of them were not sure of it (Table 4.2). 8. Can you cope with new syllabus? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered respondents 20 19 16 2 1 4.12.b. Objectives of the constructivist curriculum paradigm Question 9 was on whether the curricular objectives clearly stated or not. 61.1% of them understood the curricular objectives and 22.2% of them were not sure of it. Only 16.7% believed that the curricular objectives were not properly stated, as seen in Table 4.3below: 9. Do you think that curricular objectives are clearly stated? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered respondents 20 18 11 3 4 123 4.12.c. Perceptions about DPEP classrooms Question 10 was about their experience in DPEP classrooms. 55.56% of them had a previous experience in DPEP classrooms and 44.44% of them had not experienced in DPEP classrooms. This question had two subsections. Question 10(a) was on whether the learners really benefitted from DPEP or not. 60% of them thought that learners got benefitted from DPEP and 40% of them thought there were no benefits for learners from DPEP. Question 10(b) queried whether the new curriculum reform was a continuation of DPEP. 70% of them thought that it was a continuation of DPEP. The rest 30% of them thought that it was not a continuation of DPEP. 4.12.d. Perceptions about Constructivism and Behaviourism Question 11 was about the awareness of the framework of the constructive paradigm. 100% of them answered that they were aware of the framework of the new paradigm. Question 12 was about the difference between behaviourism and constructivism. 78.94% of them thought that there was a difference between behaviourism and constructivism. 10.53 % of them thought that there was no difference between them. 10.53% of the rest could not differentiate between the two concepts (Table 4.4). 12. Is there any considerable difference between Behaviourism and Constructivism? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 19 1 15 2 2 124 4.12.e. Perceptions about learner-centered classrooms Question 13 was about the viability of learner centered curriculum in classrooms.75% of them thought that learner-centered curriculum was viable in classrooms. 20% of them thought that it was not viable in classrooms. 5% of the teachers recorded that they were not quite sure of the viability of learner-centered classrooms (Table 4.5). 13. Do you think learner-centered curriculum is possible in classroom? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 15 4 1 4.13.a. Classroom techniques, practices and strategies The third section of this questionnaire dealt with classroom teaching, classroom practice and classroom interaction. Question 14 was on whether they prepared detailed lesson plans with extensive notes. 80% of them prepared detailed lesson plans with extensive notes and 20% of them did not prepare extensive notes or lesson plans. Question 15 was about teachers’ classroom interaction with students. 95% of them responded to this question and only 5% of them did not make their responses. Out of the respondents, 94.7% of them found time for interaction with students. 5.3% of the rest did not find time for it. Question 16 was whether they interacted in English with students or not. 100% of them interacted with students in English. Question 17directly related to question 16. It was on whether the students responded in English or not. 90% of them responded to it and 10 % of them did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 83.3% of them 125 recorded that the students responded in English and 16.7% of them responded in Malayalam. Question 18 was about teacher’s preparation for classes. The question was whether they thought adequate homework on the part of teachers was needed for teaching new lessons or not. 90% of them responded that adequate home work on the part of teachers was needed for teaching these lessons. 10% of them thought that home work was not required for teaching these new lessons (Table 4.6). 18. Do you think adequate home work on the part of teachers is needed for teaching these lessons? Questions Number of Yes No Some times Administered Respondents 20 20 18 2 0 Question 19 was about their extra/secondary reading. It asked whether they found time for extra/secondary reading or not. 65% of them found time for extra/secondary reading, 25% of them sometimes found time for reading those materials. The 10% of them never read any secondary material. Question 20 was about the traditional classroom practice on giving notes for students. It asked whether they gave notes for students. 60% of them gave notes for students, 30% of them gave notes not frequently. The rest of 10% did not give any notes for them (Table 4.7). 20. Do you give notes for students? Questions Number of Yes No Some times Administered Respondents 20 20 12 2 6 126 4.13.b. Treatment of Textual Activities Question 21 and 22 were about textual activities. Question 21 was on whether the students were asked to do textual exercises or not. 90% of them worked out textual activities. 10% of them did it sometimes. Q. No 22 was on whether they found /spent time for correcting textual exercise or not. 80% of them were dedicated teachers who spent time for correcting the exercises, 5% of them totally neglected it and 15% of them did it sometimes. 4.13.c Perceptions about Teaching Materials Question 23 and 24 were about teaching materials. The handbooks/source books were the traditional resource books for teachers. Question 23 was on whether they referred to the handbooks or not. 90% of them followed these resource books, 10% of them referred to those books sometimes. Question 24 was about how far the teachers were familiar with ICT as a modern teaching material. 70% of them used ICT for effective teaching, 20% of them used it sometimes, and 10% of them totally avoided it in classroom teaching. 4.14.a. Representations in Academic Bodies The fourth section dealt with text books related questions. There were 8 questions which dealt with curricular reforms, learning context and learner friendly text books. Question No.25 was a question which has three subsections. Q. 25 was on whether teachers involved in the curricular reform planning or not. 90% of them responded to it and 10 % of them did not 127 respond to it. Out of the respondents, only 5.5% of them involved in the curricular reform and the rest of 94.5% of them did not involve in it. Q. No.25 (a) was on whether they had represented in textbook committee. Nobody became a part of it. Q. No.25 (b) was on whether they had been a part of an evaluation committee. Nobody became a part of it. Q. No.25(c) was on whether they acted as resource persons of any other committees. 5.5% of them served a resource person and the rest of 94.5% of them were not resource persons. 4.14.b. Perceptions about Issue-based curriculum Q. No.26 was on whether the issue-based curriculum really conveyed issues to the students. 30% of them thought that the new curriculum really conveyed issues to the students, 30% of them thought that the curriculum never conveyed its actual goal and 40% of them were not sure about whether it conveyed or not (Table 4.8). Q. 26. Do you think that issue-based curriculum really conveys issues to the students? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 6 6 8 Q. No.27 was on whether the text books really ignored a few more issues in the existing text book or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5 % of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 42.1% of them thought that a few more relevant issues were really ignored in the existing text book, 10.5% of them thought that the existing texts were perfect and all the relevant issues were included in it and 47.4% of them were not sure about it (Table 4.9). 128 Q. 27. Do you think that a few more issues should be included in the curriculum which is really ignored in the text books? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 19 1 8 2 9 4.14.c. Perceptions about learning content Q. N.28 and 29 were about the learning content of text books. Q. No.28 was on whether teachers were satisfied with the learning content of English text books or not. 55% of them were satisfied, 45% of them were not satisfied with them. Q. No.29 was on whether the literary content of text book was learner- friendly or not. 90% of them responded to it and 10% of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 61.1% of them thought that the literary contents were learner-friendly in approach, 38.9% of them thought that they were not learner- friendly. 4.14.d. Perceptions about teaching of Grammar Q. No. 30, 31 and 32 were related with grammatical contents about the new text books. Q. No.30 was on whether the new grammar teaching approach could easily be understood by the students or not. 40% of them answered that the text books contained easy grammatical items to be conveyed, 35% of them answered that the text books contained difficult grammatical items to be conveyed and the remaining 25% were not sure of it (Table 4.10). 129 Q. 30. Do you think that the new methods of teaching grammatical items can easily be understood by the students? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 8 7 5 Q. No.31 was on whether the traditional grammar teaching was more effective than the new approach. 70% of them thought that the traditional approach was more effective than that of the new one, 15% of them thought the new approach was more effective than the former one and 15% of the rest were not sure of it (Table 4.11). Q. 31. Do you think that the traditional grammar teaching is more effective than the new approach? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 14 3 3 Q. No. 32 was on whether both literary and grammar contents of the text books were heavy for the learners or not. 50% of them thought that both the contents were heavy for the learners, 20% of them thought that the learning contents were not heavy for them, and 30% of them were not sure of it (Table 4.12). Q. 32. Do you think that both literary and grammar contents of the text book are very heavy for the learners? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 10 4 6 130 4.14.e. Perceptions about learner-centered curriculum and effective classroom practices The fifth section of the questionnaire discussed the learner-centered classrooms and its practices. Q.33was on whether learner participation was really required for a language class or not. 95% of them believed that learner participation was really required and 5% of them preferred the traditional classroom set up. Q.34 was on whether the learner-centered classrooms created problems for the learning process or not. 30% of them thought that the learner-centred classrooms created problems for learning process, 65% of them were not sure of it, and only 5% of them thought learner-centred classrooms did not create any problems for learning process (Table 4.13). Q. 34. Do you feel that learner-centred classrooms create problems for learning process? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 6 1 13 Q. 35 was on whether the learner-centered classrooms limited the role of teachers in the learning process or not. 20% of them thought that the learner-centered classrooms limited the role of teachers, 80% of them thought the new classrooms did not limit the teachers’ role. Q. 36 was on whether the teachers liked to limit the students’ freedom for interaction classrooms or not. 10% of them thought to limit the freedom for interaction in classrooms, 80% of them thought there was no need to limit their freedom and 10% of them were not sure of it. 131 Q. No. 37 was on whether they followed scaffolding practices or not. 100% of them attempted to scaffold them. This could be considered a positive feedback from the teachers, since scaffolding holds an important place in constructivism. Q. No.37 (a) was on whether they thought that scaffolding was an inevitable strategy for language learning or not. 100% of them thought that it was an inevitable strategy for language learning. 4.14.f. Perceptions on evaluation Q. 38 was on whether the teachers tried to assess the English proficiency of the learners in classrooms or not. 80% of them assessed the proficiency of the learners and commence the classes, 20% of them began the class without any assessment. Q. 39 was on whether teachers categorised learners on the basis of their proficiency in English or not. 90% of them responded to it and 10% of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 45% of them grouped the students on the basis of their proficiency, 45% of them never grouped them according to their proficiencies. 4.14.g Attitude towards the disadvantaged learners Q.No. 40 was about whether teachers gave extra attention to weaker students or not.95 % of them responded to it and 5% of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, only 10.5% of them gave extra attention to weaker students, 84.2% of them gave no extra attention to weaker students. Only 5.3% of them were not sure of it (Table 4.14). 132 Q. 40. Do you give extra attention to weaker students? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 19 1 2 16 1 4.14.h. Perceptions about duration of English periods The sixth section of the questionnaire dealt with teachers’ assessment and their suggestions about the new curriculum. Q. No.41 was on whether the regular 45 minute classroom activities were sufficient for constructive classrooms or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 10.53% of them thought that 45 minutes classroom session was sufficient, 73.68% thought that the time allotment should be changed for conducting constructive classrooms, and 15.79% of them were not sure of it. Q. 42 related to the previous question. It asked whether the allotted hours for English for a week were sufficient to learners or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 52.6% of them were satisfied with the current pattern, 42.1% of them were dissatisfied with the present pattern and 5.3% of them were not sure of it. 4.14.i. Peer group learning Q. 43 was about alternate learning techniques like peer-group learning. 90% of them encouraged peer-group learning, 10% of them discouraged peer group learning. 4.14.j. Perceptions about system of examination Q. 44 was on whether a radical change was needed for our examination system or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents , 89.4% of them thought that a 133 radical change was needed for the system of evaluation.5.3% of them were satisfied with the present system and 5.3% of them were not sure of it. Q. 45 was on whether the critical and linguistic skills of the students should be tested in the evaluation systems and tests or not. 85% of them thought those skills should be tested in exams, interestingly, nobody thought both of these skills should not be tested, and 15% of them were not sure of it (Table 4.15). Q. 45. Do you think that the critical and linguistic skills of the students should be tested in the examination? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 20 17 0 3 Q. 46 was about the present evaluation system. It asked whether the evaluation system should be changed or not.85% of them responded to it and 15% of them did not give any response. 82.4% of them were for a revised evaluation system, 11.7% of them were satisfied with the present system and 5.9% of them were not sure of it. 46(a) was on whether they thought that more time could be devoted to continuous assessment or not .75% of them thought that more time could be devoted to continuous assessment and 25% of them were against it. 46(b) was on whether they thought that innovative methods should be included in the evaluation system or not.73.68% of them promoted innovative methods, 21.05% of them did not promote them and 5.27% of them were not sure of it. 46(c) was on whether they thought that the frequency of tests should be increased in the evaluation system or not. 78.96% of them thought that the 134 frequency of tests should be increased, 10.52%of them did not support it and the rest of 10.52% were not sure of it. Q.47 was on whether the error analysis strategy in traditional classrooms was applicable to new classrooms or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 72.22% of them thought that same error analysis strategy could be applicable to both traditional and new language strategies. 5.6% of them called for new strategies of error analysis for new classrooms and 22.22% of them were not sure of it. 4.14.k. Teacher training Q. 48 was on whether the teacher training courses should be revamped in tune with constructive curriculum or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 89% of them thought that training courses needed qualitative changes, 5.5% of them were satisfied with the present mode of training and 5.5% of the rest were not sure of it (Table 4.16). Q. 48. Do you think that the curriculum for teacher training courses should be revamped in tune with constructive curriculum? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 18 16 1 1 Q. 49 was on whether a radical change in English classrooms were needed or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 83.4% of them thought that a radical change was necessary, 11.1% of them were satisfied with the present system and 5.5% of them were not sure of it. 135 4.14.l. General outline of the new textbooks: An overview Q. 50 was the last question in the questionnaire and it has three subsections. This question was on whether the new textbooks appeared to be relevant and challenging or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 44.44% of them felt that the new textbooks were relevant and challenging. 33.33% of them thought that the new text books were not challenging and relevant and 22.23% of them were not sure of it. (Table 4.17) Q. 50. Do you feel that the text books are relevant and challenging? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 18 8 4 6 Q. 50(a) was on whether text books were transacting or not. 85% of them responded to it and 15% of them did not give any response. 70.6% felt that the text books were transacting, 17.6% felt they were not transacting and the rest of 11.8% were not sure of it. (Table 4.17a) Q. 50 (a) Do you think that existing textbooks are transacting? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 17 12 3 2 Q. No.50b) was on whether the existing text books were based on constructivism was hard for the average and below average students or not. 90% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents, 61.1% of them thought that these text books were not easy for the average and below average students, 22.2% of them thought that they were easy for them, and 16.7 % of them were not sure of it. (Table 4.17b). 136 Q. 50(b). Do you think that the existing textbooks based on constructive paradigm are hard nut to crack for the average students? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 18 11 4 3 Q. No.50(c) whether the existing text books (constructivist) were radically different from the old text books (behaviourist) or not. 95% of them responded to it and 5% of them did not respond to it. Out of the respondents 73.7% of them felt that there was a radical difference between them, 15.8% of them felt there was no radical difference between them, and 10.5% of them were not sure of it (Table4.17c). Q. 50(c). Do you feel that the existing textbooks based on constructivism are radically different from the old text books based on behaviourist methodology? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 20 19 14 3 2 4.15. Analysis of the questionnaire for students The students’ questionnaire contained 43 questions. The questions were randomly arranged and are intended to gather their impressions on the curriculum and teaching practice. All the questions were set in Malayalam. This investigator thought that this survey was conducted among the students who came from diverse social backgrounds. Some of them were found to be not very proficient in English language interactions. So language ought not to be a barrier to express their impressions or feedback about constructivism. The questions were translated by the investigator for the purpose of study. Like teachers’ questionnaire, this questionnaire has two sections. The first section of the questionnaire contained students’ personal information. 137 The section was mainly for categorization. Without categorization, this survey might be a futile attempt for analysing students’ responses. The second section dealt with closed-ended questions with two or three multiple choices (yes/No/not sure). 4.15.a. Perceptions about prior language acquisition and language motivation Q. 1 was on whether they were English medium students or not. 46.74% of them were English medium students and 53.26% of them were Malayalam medium students (4.18). Q. 1. Is English your medium of instruction? Questions Number of Yes No Administered Respondents 300 291 136 155 Q. No.2 was on whether English language learning was an enjoyable process or not. 82.88% of them were interested to learn English and only 17.12% were not interested to learn English. 4.15.b. Perceptions about learning Grammar Q.No.3 was on whether the learners felt difficulty in learning grammar or not.99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 82.88% of them felt difficulty in learning grammar and 17.12% found grammar rather easy. 4.15. c. Perceptions on use of English Q.No.4 was on whether they were interested in speaking English or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 90.87% of them were interested to speak in English where as 9.12% were not interested. Only 0.01% of the rest were not sure of it. 138 Q. No.5 was about whether their teachers spoke English in the classrooms or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 49.7% of teachers spoke English in classrooms, 33.9% of them used English sometimes and 16.4 % of them never used English (Table 4.19). Q. 5. Do your teachers speak English in classrooms? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 300 298 148 49 101 Q.No.6 was on whether teachers encouraged them to speak in English or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 42.44% of teachers encouraged speaking English in classrooms, 40.13% of them encouraged speaking English sometimes and 17.39% of them never encouraged this practice (Table 4.20). Q. 6. Do your teachers encourage speaking English in the classrooms? Questions Number of Yes No Some times Administered Respondents 300 299 126 53 120 Q. No.7 was on whether they spoke in English with their friends or not. 98% of them responded to it and 2% did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 31.97% of students used English while speaking with their friends, 27.21% of them never used English and 40.81% of them rarely used English in their casual conversation. (Table 4.21). Q. 7. Do you speak in English with your friends? Questions Number of Yes No Not sure Administered Respondents 300 294 94 80 120 139 4.15.d. Use of web resources Q. 8 was on whether they used internet or not. 93.7% of them responded to it and 6.3% of them did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 41.3% of them used internet, 37.3% never used internet and 21.4% of them sometimes used internet. Q. 9 was on whether they sought help from teachers or parents, while using internet instructions in English or not. 98.4% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 26.44% of them sought help from others while using internet, 38.98% of them never sought help from anybody and 34.57% of the rest sought help from others sometimes. 4.15.e. Exposure to English films, animated cartoon etc Q. No. 10 to 12 discussed how far they are exposed to English. Q. No. 10 was on whether they watched English animated cartoons or not. All the 300 respondents responded to it. 51.33% of them watched English cartoons, 19.67 % of them did not watch these programmes and 29% of the rest watched them sometimes. Q. No.11 was about their habit of watching English movies. 98.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 55.4% of them watched English movies, 13.5% never watched English movies and 31.1 % of the rest watched movies sometimes. Q.No.12 was whether those cartoons/movies helped you understanding English or not. 98.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 55.40%of them thought that they helped them understand English, 7.44% of them did not think so and 37.16% of the rest thought that those movies helped them sometimes. 140 4.15.f. Student-teacher relationship Q. No.13 to 15 dealt with student-teacher relationship. Q. No. 13 whether the teachers behaved friendly with them or not. 66.44% of them thought that teachers were friendly with them.33.56% of them thought teachers did not behave friendly with them. (Table 4.22). Q. 13. Do the teachers behave friendly with you in English classrooms? Questions Number of Yes No Administered Respondents 300 295 196 99 Q. No.14 was on whether teachers clarified the doubts when they raised or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 89.63% of them recorded that teachers responded well when doubts were raised by the students, 3.35% of them thought teachers did not respond well, and 7.02% of them recorded that teachers responded only sometimes. Q. No.15 was on whether the teachers got annoyed when doubts were raised by them or not. 85% of them recorded that teachers got annoyed when doubts were raised by them, 10% of them recorded teachers did not get annoyed when doubts were raised by them and 5% of the rest recorded teachers got angry sometimes (Table 4.23). Q. 15. Do teachers get annoyed when you ask doubts? Questions Number of Yes No Sometimes Administered Respondents 300 298 254 30 14 141 4.15.g. Learner participation Q. 16 was about learner’s classroom participation, whether they were controlled in activities or discussions. 40.5% of them had active discussions in English classrooms, 26% of them thought that they had no discussions 33.5% of them thought that they had active discussions in English classroom sometimes (Table 4.24). Q. 16. Do the teachers behave friendly with you in English classrooms? Questions Number of Yes No Sometimes Administered Respondents 284 16 115 74 95 4.15.h. Perceptions about special classes and classroom discussions Q.17 was on whether they got any special classes for English or not. 94.7% of them responded to it and the rest of 5.3% did not give any response. 18% of them got special classes for English, 53% of them got no special classes and 29% of them got special classes sometimes. Q. 18 was on whether they led the classroom discussions or not. Only 14% of them got the lead while conducting classroom discussions, 85% of them got no opportunity for leading the discussions and 1%rarely got an opportunity (Table 4.25). Q. 18. Do you lead discussions in English classrooms? Questions Number of Yes No Administered Respondents 296 4 42 252 142 4.15.i. Remedial and First language-aided teaching Q.19 was about tuition classes. It followed whether they depended on any tuition classes for English or not. 97% of them responded to it and 3% of them did not give any response. 36% of them depended on tuition classes 53% of them did not depend on tuition class and 11%of them depended on them sometimes. Q.No.20 was on whether they liked to be taught English by using Malayalam or not 78% of them liked to be taught English by using Malayalam, 19% of them disliked it and 3 % of them liked it sometimes (Table 4.26). Q. 20. Do you like to use Malayalam for English classes? Questions Number of Yes No Sometimes Administered Respondents 300 295 230 56 9 4.15.j. Perceptions about the scope of English Q. No.21 was on whether they thought English was really helpful for higher education or not. 99%of them responded to it. Out of the respondents, 86% agreed that English was really helpful for higher education and the meagre percent of 14 % did not think it helpful for higher education. Q. No. 22 was on whether they thought that English helped them to get career opportunities overseas and outside Kerala or not. All the respondents responded to it. 96% thought it was a must for career opportunity, 3% of them thought it did not have any role. Only 1% of them thought that it was sometimes a must for career opportunity. 4.15.k. Different classroom techniques Q. No.23 was on whether they had peer group learning or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of 143 the respondents, 44% of them recorded that they had peer group learning, 46% recorded that they had peer group learning sometimes and 10% of the rest recorded that they did not have any such experience. Q.No.24 was on whether they were encouraged to do textbook exercises by themselves or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 63.2 % of them recorded that they were encouraged , 28.4% of them recorded that they were never encouraged and only 8.4% of them were sometimes encouraged to do textual tasks. Q. No.25 was on whether their teachers helped them doing textual exercises whenever they needed academic help or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 53.8% of them recorded that they were encouraged and helped by the teachers, 31.8% of them were encouraged and helped by the teachers sometimes and 14.4% of them got any encouragement. Q. No.26 was on whether they tried to read English lessons and its meaning without the help of others or not. All the respondents responded to it 68.7% of them tried to understand English lessons and its meanings without others help, 26% of them tried to understand it sometimes and 5.3% of the rest never tried to understand it. 4.15.l. Perceptions about teachers’ motivation and encouragement Q. No.27 was on whether they were encouraged by your teachers to respond to different social issues or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 40% of them were encouraged to respond, 43% of them were encouraged sometimes and 17% of them were never encouraged by teachers. Q. No. 28 was on whether their teachers were able to correlate textual issue with different social issues or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the 144 rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 57.53% of them thought that teachers correlated social issues with the text, 30.43% of them thought that teachers did it sometimes and 12.04% of them thought that they did not. Q. No.29 was on whether they tried to imbibe by values promoted by the text books or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 37% of them tried to imbibe the value, 49 % of them never tried to and 14 % tried it sometimes. Q. No.30 was on whether they liked to get class notes or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 77% of them liked to get class notes, 10% of them liked it sometimes and 13% of them never liked it. 4.15.m. Self-confidence level Q. No.31 was on whether they were confident of preparing notes on the lessons which were taught to them or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 64.1% of them were confident of doing 25.5% of them were not always confident and 10.4% of them were not confident enough to make notes by themselves. 4.15. n. Prior-Entry level experience Q. No.32 was on whether they felt any drastic change in English learning strategies and materials between the primary and secondary classes or not. 99%of them responded to it. Out of the respondents, 66.7% of them felt a kind of change occurred, 19.9% of them felt it sometime and 13.4% of the rest did not feel any change. Q. No.33 was on whether secondary class English lessons were more enjoyable than primary class lessons. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 57.8% of them thought secondary class English lessons were more enjoyable, 12.5% of them 145 felt this attitude sometimes and 29.7 % of them felt primary class English lessons more enjoyable. 4.15. o. Learner freedom Q.No.34 was on whether they got freedom in English classes or not. 57.7% of them got freedom in English classes, 13.7% of them got freedom partially and 28.6% of them do not get any freedom (Table 4.27). Q. 34 Have you got freedom in classrooms teaching? Questions Number of Yes No Sometimes Administered Respondents 300 300 173 86 41 4.15.p. Teachers’ dominance Q. No.35 was on whether your teachers tried to limit your freedom or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 35.6% of them thought that their teachers limited their freedom, 37.2% of them thought that their freedom was limited sometimes and 27.2% of them thought that their teachers did not limit their freedom (Table 4.28). Q. 35 Do your teachers limit your freedom? Questions Number of Yes No Sometimes Administered Respondents 300 298 106 81 111 Q. No. 36 was on whether they thought that spoken English classes should be given a special place in school timetable or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 40.60% of them supported it, 40.26% did not think of giving it special consideration and 19.12% of them were not sure of it. 146 Q. No.37 was on whether they were satisfied with the existing system of examination not. 98.4% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 60% of them were satisfied with the present system, 2% of them were not satisfied with it sometimes and 38% of them were not satisfied with it at all. Q. No.38 was on whether they thought that examinations were text book centric or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 43% of them thought that examinations were text book-centric, 29% of them felt text book centric sometimes and 28% of them did not think so. Q. No.39 was on whether they preferred questions that examine their individual thinking rather than text book questions or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest did not make any response. Out of the respondents, 65% of them preferred question which examined their individual thinking 19% of them were not sure of it and 16 % of the rest preferred text book-centred questions. 4.15.q. Development of learner autonomy Q. No.40 was on whether they could express and reflect their opinions and thoughts in examinations or not. 83% of them thought their ideas should be reflected in examinations, 9 % of them were not sure of it. 8% of the rest did not think it so (Table 4.28). Q. 40 Do you express and reflect your opinions and thoughts in examinations? Respondents Non-Respondents Yes No Not sure 299 1 248 23 28 147 4.15.r. Learners’s perceptions about assessment system Q. No.41 was on whether they preferred continuous class tests rather than the present system or not. 99.4% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 59% of them preferred continuous class tests than the present system and 41% of preferred the present system. Q. No. 42 was on whether they thought that assessments and classroom debates should be included in assessment system or not. All the respondents responded to it. 69% of them thought classroom debates should be included in assessment, 7.7% of them were not sure of it and 23.3% of them thought they should not be included. Q. 43 was on whether they thought that their examination paper and class test papers were peer-reviewed by your classmates or not. 99.7% of them responded to it and the rest of them did not give any response. Out of the respondents, 68.6% of them supported for peer-review, 10.4% of them were not sure of it and 21.% of them were against it. In this part, the structural analysis of the responses to the questionnaires, administered, has been considered. A smaller qualitative sheet along with the questionnaire soliciting more description was administered for both teachers and students. Detailed analyses of the questionnaire as well as the qualitative response sheet along with the content are presented in the next chapter. 148 PART II INTERPRETATION 4.16 Introduction This section presents the implications of the paradigm shift and reviews the reflections in the survey. Since the new curriculum created mixed reactions, the findings would be discussed in detail on the basis of the questionnaire, field notes, semi- structured interviews, personal narratives and direct observation. As this researcher had obtained B.Ed, she used to teach secondary school students during her teaching practice sessions. These on-site experiences made the researcher study more about the new paradigm, by the awareness of action research principles and the position of researcher as a practising teacher. This research is basically an impact study which attempts to analyse the appropriateness of the new curriculum at the secondary level and evaluate it in the light of the qualitative data collected. Supported by evidence gathered through observation, surveys and interviews, the study tries to assess whether constructive curriculum is effectively materialized in its pedagogical process or not. The rationale behind these data gathering techniques is that it covers a broad perspective to be gathered through the use of questionnaires, personal interviews and field notes. The holistic data comprises the opinions and points of view of teachers and students. Despite its subjective elements, some of the general notions and regressive practices are identified and discussed next. In the opinion of Murphy, ‘a new era’ of language learning is characterized by its following characteristics: a. Focuses on product rather than process b. Stands for holistic approach 149 c. Use of authentic materials for language learning d. Promotes learner- centered education system e. Relies on performance based assessment. (qtd. in Anandan “Tuition to Intuition” 288) Before interpreting the data, the researcher decides to have a glance at some of the previous reports based on educational policies like DPEP and SSA. These case study reports definitely help to explore contextual conditions which may be highly relevant to the study. The findings made by these reports offer insights into the structural and practical issues pertaining to the new paradigm shift. The summaries of the reports are given below: A.SLAP Report (2001) SLAP (Second Language Acquisition Programme) by Dr.K.N. Anandan was an innovative ESL pedagogical model. This UNICEF-funded report was prepared by Anita Rampal. This report was a comparison between schools which had implemented SLAP and the schools which did not. When some task tests were conducted for both SLAP and non-SLAP fourth, fifth and seventh standard students, more than 25% of SLAP students as a whole got A grades in writing, reading and speaking. But only 5 to 10% percentage of non- SLAP students as a whole got A grades for the same tasks. Rampal observed that SLAP could reorient teachers sufficiently and help students acquire basic skills in English within a short period of time. The report also found that DPEP scheme gave ample space for developing the creativity of children who were no longer afraid of examinations. B. SLAP Report (2004) This report entitled ‘The Teaching of English in the Government/Aided: Primary Schools in Kerala under DPEP was actually 150 published as Center for Development Studies-Working Paper. Conducted by Sridevi.K.Nair (2004), this study observed the following: I. Advantages  Listening comprehension of SLAP children was much better than non- SLAP students.  SLAP programmes increased considerably the English language proficiency of teachers.  The students liked English classes because they provided opportunities to engage themselves in interesting activities. II. Implementation Flaws  Most of the teachers were not qualified to teach English.  Many teachers expressed less professional commitment.  A majority of the teachers had little exposure to Spoken English language. This insufficient exposure might hamper them from providing ‘adequate exposure’ to the children for acquiring second language. III Theoretical Flaws  Its over dependence upon Noam Chomsky’s theories.  The exposure of children’s language was very limited (39-45). C. JRM Kerala 2014 This centrally-sponsored report which mainly identified some of the reasons behind the low achievement level among the primary school students of Kerala touched upon the different aspects of secondary education in 151 general. Problems identified in this document were “absence of a sound school curriculum, text book designed for rote-learning, ‘primitive’ teaching practices and absence of teacher training.” (52). This critical scenario in the field of primary education eventually had led to the development of District Primary Education Programme in Kerala. In 2000, Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA) Programme took the mantle from DPEP for nurturing a vibrant, dynamic academic society in Kerala. In 2007, KCF was conceptualized based on the theoretical principles put forward in NCF 2005.This report critically examined the present education system and provided some major insights as follows: a. The teacher empowerment programmes conducted once in a month or for a day is not sufficient to achieve the larger aims of the curriculum. Teachers need more time and support to unlearn what they have already learned in a behaviourist paradigm and they want direct experience to understand the notion that knowledge can be constructed through experiential learning. The pre-service teacher education programmes conducted by the universities are not in tune with the emerging curricular visions the state follow. They are based on the old behaviour approach to learning. This became a major handicap for teachers who are working in the field and trying to practise the latest methods of pedagogical insights. (62) The report also elaborates: b. Our major concern is addressing quality issues. Preparing teachers to address the new situation is the real challenge. Without enhancing the capabilities of the teachers both ideologically and realistically, the state could not address the quality issues. Transforming the existing teachers is the crucial and critical task. Hence any training without enabling the 152 teachers and reinforced through the old pattern of pre-service training will be meaningless. (ibid. 64) c. Every school must have one or two teachers of English who will teach English through English or by using the languages of children in a way that the learning of English is assured; help children read and write English fluently and confidently from Class I onwards. The State Institute of English will have special role to play here. It should be provided with all financial and academic support to build a programme of English language teaching that may be rooted in multilingualism, treating the languages of learners as a resource rather than an obstacle. (ibid. 20) The insights drawn from these reports foreground the implication of the present study which attempts to get a general outlook of constructivist curriculum paradigm shift in the teaching of English across the secondary classes in Kerala. Within this broad framework, English language learning aims at empowering learners to make sense of their everyday life. The study probes the attitudinal changes, classroom practices and the general perceptions and the multifarious dimensions of ELT in the state. It basically tries to explore these following: (a) How do teachers of English perceive the new paradigm? (b) To what extent are the teaching and classroom practice transformed in tune with the new curriculum? (c) How do parents and academicians receive and support the new paradigm? (d) How do learners perceive English education within the new paradigm? 153 4.17. Positive Changes The responses of the participants were collected and analysed qualitatively. To analyze the data, the researcher tried to pinpoint the major positive changes, flaws and regressions among the mix of responses from the research data. The main findings are presented below in descriptive rather than statistical terms. Since this new curriculum is undergoing the formative stages of its implementation, the researcher focuses on the noted changes than the statistically valid points. As personal narratives are used as a research tool of qualitative research, the researcher incorporates this tool in order to understand personal experiences of both teachers and students about the new curriculum. In the light of an analysis of attitudinal perspectives, the narratives are considered to be one way of reflecting the thought process of teachers, parents and students. The findings and analysis is given below:  Positive Changes in Classroom Dynamics The present study is carried out at a juncture between the traditional paradigm and the new paradigm. While analysing the qualitative data, there is a mix of response on the effectiveness of the new curriculum. The classroom dynamics have tremendously improved after the implementation of new curriculum. The researcher observed that English classrooms were more vibrant and dynamic than ever before. Some of the students’ responses are revealing: English classes taught me how to think and respond. Respondent 1 I try to correlate textual lessons with contemporary social issues. Respondent 2 154 Many of them also responded that they thought and learned about the social issues. Throughout the field visit, the researcher found that the teachers tried hard to sensitize students and made them aware of other social issues. Many teachers opined that a lot of students showed great enthusiasm for making wall magazines, posters, diary writing, advertisements etc. Even though they could not use accurate grammatical expressions, they expressed their contents in English and teachers helped them rectify the usages. Many students were confident enough to prepare study notes for themselves in English. The new paradigm initiated a new turn in the relationship between teachers and students. The constructivists’ classrooms became learner- friendly classrooms. Teaching-learning is a cyclic process in critical pedagogical practices in which teachers create possibilities for the construction of new knowledge. Human learning is a dynamic social activity that is situated in the contexts within which knowledge is shared, negotiated and constructed through experience in the communities of practice in which the individual participates (Johnson 450-452). During the personal visits, this researcher found that student-teacher relationship had improved considerably and students freely engaged with teachers in classroom discourses. It was seen that English learning became a more enjoyable activity for them. Many teachers became more self-reflective in their teaching profession. Some of the responses are given below: I feel that part of my duty is to enhance their level of motivation and self- esteem. Respondent 3 155 I realize the importance of using critical approach in English text books which encourages divergent thinking among teachers and students. Respondent 4 The general environment of classroom has been changed from teacher- centered to learner-friendly situation. Many teachers acknowledged that they had realized the importance of mutual trust among students and teachers after the implementation of new curriculum. Many teachers in the survey were found to assess the students before the commencement of classes. This was a welcome sign on the part of teachers to transform classrooms from the old paradigm to the new paradigm. Once the teacher assessed the students, she/he could apply specific strategies to each learner based on need analysis.  Positive Attitude towards English The attitude towards English learning has tremendously been changed. Majority of students learned English as a tool for empowerment. They felt that a considerable knowledge of English would help them receive better employment in higher education. Ninety five percent of them learn English. It was interesting to note the gender perception in the utility of English education. The majority of boys preferred English learning for pursuing careers abroad, whereas the girls preferred it for higher study. The students showed great enthusiasm for learning Communicative English. In their feedback, many of them remarked that more hours for Communicative English should be provided to them. Parents also expressed their enthusiasm for communicative English classes. Some schools offered special coaching for spoken English. But it is important to note that competence in written communication is as important as spoken communication for professional success. While analysing the questionnaire, it 156 was observed that many teachers and students were still hesitant to speak in English. According to P.B Nayar, “However, most educated Keralites will have enough communicative ability in English, more passive than active, and more in writing than in fluent speaking” ( 2). The new textbooks gave ample textual situations for linguistic and communicative competencies. These text books attempt to develop academic writing style through different social language proficiencies among students. Authentic materials were used for classroom transactions in the new curriculum. The new textbooks used rich array of authentic materials like cartoons, newspaper editorials, movies, commercials and other cultural texts, which represented a multi-layered culture. Both students and teachers were subjects in the process of constructing knowledge. The students developed critical power to see reality as a transformative entity. As Ares observed: Such authentic materials help students establish a link between the acquired knowledge and the existing problems in society. Students are also sensitized to take necessary actions for their improvement. These transformation practices help students develop skills in reflection and action that allow them to recognize and work against oppressive conditions in society. (qtd. in Aliakbari and Faraji 80) The aim of transformative practice is social transformation (Giroux 235, Pennycook, “ The Cultural Politics” 297,Freire 58- 70). Positive changes in Syllabus The different manifestations of power like political power, discursive power and language power have become the major concerns of post-colonial perspectives on education. It has already been stated that print capitalism and English education accelerated British colonial policies in India. The colonial 157 policies shaped Indian education system by introducing common school system and textbook culture. Encouraging a critical contemplation on the impact of English education and cultural colonialism, post-colonial body of literature exposed the imperialistic design in English as an academic design. The post-colonial ELT theoreticians and academicians often question the ownership of English language pedagogy. Since English is considered as the global language, it becomes every nation’s property. The post-colonial body of literature argued that the global expansion of ELT as a part of linguistic imperialism. (Rogers 8-12, Philipson 27-28). Critical discourse analysis /critical pedagogy critiqued the central tenets of ELT. The pedagogical praxis and implementation policies are deeply associated with the context and its cultural/social fabric. The new textbooks attempted to decolonize ELT materials by incorporating non-British literature, non- native writings in English and translations from regional languages. The new textbooks presented social issues in the increasing order of complexity. The complex /serious issues are included in higher classes. The generalization of social issues was logically deduced with the help of specific authentic materials. Throughout the field visit, it was observed that teachers used different constructivist strategies in classroom practices like critical discourses, dialogues and brainstorming. In the discussion, a majority of the students from urban schools thought that brainstorming sessions by teachers really helped them while preparing essays and group discussion. The teachers tried to scaffold them by throwing questions about different aspects of the topic. Students from semi-urban and rural schools felt initial inhibition when teachers practised different strategies. They were not confident enough to express their thoughts in English. When the teacher tried to relate the topics with their own experiences, they slowly expressed their views in halting 158 English. Post-colonial ELT theoretician Baral proposed and elaborated on an ancient pedagogical model developed by Vishnu Sharma in the form of Tales of Panchatantra, considered to be the first on pedagogy. The earliest vibes of dialogic practice can be traced in Panchatantra which dialogues are encouraged to proliferate where learning becomes a self- propelling process (483). Post-colonial educational theorists consider the pedagogy as a cultural practice in which socio-political issues like human right violation, agrarian crisis and gender discrimination are addressed by accommodating English literatures. The well-known literary theorist Aijaz Ahmad pointed out “English departments are in a position to project the multi-cultural and multi- lingual reality and through this recognize the heterogeneity of our cultural past’’ (281). 4.18 Flaws of Implementation The qualitative analysis of data also exposed some flaws of implementation and regression in classroom practices. Some of the major issues are highlighted:  Teacher Education There was a controversy regarding the qualification of teachers of English at secondary level in Kerala during 1980s and 1990s. Since English was taught as a compulsory subject in secondary classes, English teachers were required in every division. During those times, graduates in schools like Social Science, Science and Maths teachers taught English in many schools. This practice was vehemently criticized among the academic circles in Kerala. The Kerala Public Service Commission suggested a Bachelor Degree in English Language and Literature and B.Ed with teaching of English as an optional paper would be the prescribed qualification for English teachers. Meanwhile, The Director of Public Instructions also submitted a report to the 159 Government showing the lack of qualified teachers and the present methodology as the major reasons for the low percentage of pass in English. This serious academic impasse made the government amend special rules for getting qualified teachers of English at the secondary and higher secondary level. The Government of Kerala issued an order in 2002 insisting that only English graduates with a B.Ed could be appointed to teach English. It was later amended in the Kerala Education Rules (KER), according to which the qualified teachers with B.A English and B.Ed(English) were eligible for the appointment. Nowadays, English is treated as a separate language subject that is required to be taught by English graduates with a B.Ed. in English. Even though this special rule provided an ample opportunity for English graduates and post graduates across Kerala, some of the serious observations made by JRM Report, 2014 regarding teacher education and material design warrant consideration: a. The B.Ed. course syllabus conducted by three universities in the state does not reflect NCF assumptions. b. The NCF recommended constructivist approach as a general principle and copious reference to Vygotsky. At the SCERT and DIETs, however, educators appear to think that social constructivism referred to in KCF is in opposition to NCF 2005 which is factually not the case. The dichotomy between ‘processes/issues’ based KCF and ‘content/theme’ based 2014 curriculum need more careful and critical reflection. c. The SCERT faculties were not able to elaborate on what they perceived as a major difference between NCF 2005 and KCF 2007. They were not conceptually clear on the broad principles of NCF 2005 and their understanding of social constructivism equally. 160 d . Textbook and material preparation must not be done at breakneck, breathless speed. Professionals must be involved in all aspects of this process. The same is true for teacher resource materials. It is important to analyze these observations in the context of this present study. The B.Ed.programme is designed in a rigid manner. The syllabus of this programme follows the behaviourist model of learning. Krishna Kumar rightly observed: Structures of pedagogical transaction, do not give in to change easily… Teacher training and examinations continue to be two ‘weak’ areas of the system. Since school teaching has continued being a low-status profession, teacher training remains a poorly rated academic field. (39) The teaching practice session only gives the ground knowledge of what learning is. Most of the teacher trainees in Kerala prepared lesson plans in tune with the existing textbooks. But many of them did not possess sound knowledge of contemporary pedagogical concepts. Most of the teachers admitted that their knowledge of constructivist paradigm was mainly based on in-service courses. A few teachers admitted that they depended on website articles. Some of the narratives given below are based on their reflections about teacher training programme: When I did my B.Ed course, I was totally unaware of the concepts like Constructivism and Critical pedagogy. The course focused more on teaching practices based on traditional/behavioural paradigm. Respondent 5 161 I think a sound knowledge on pedagogical theories enables us to make personal teaching strategies. Respondent 6 During the interviews, most of the teachers admitted that they were not given any training in critical thinking or critical discourse analysis at the time of B.Ed degree programme or direct in-service training programmes. It is to be noted that critical pedagogy does not offer any full-fledged teaching methods or techniques. This theory primarily adds and enhances critical quality to textbooks and classroom discourses. They also observed that standard books on constructivist paradigm or critical thinking were not available in school libraries and many training colleges. A contrasting trait can also be found in teachers’ narratives regarding their apprehensions about the effectiveness of the new paradigm. However, the teachers were found to be making attempts to sharpen their knowledge on new paradigm through sharing their experiences, reading online blogs and articles. A few teachers observed that the Second Language, a column by Dr.P.K Jayaraj and When Words Bloom by the same author were really helpful to them in understanding the new paradigm and its classroom strategies. Teacher training has a significant role in the professional development of teachers. Second language teacher professionalism involves both sponsored and independent professionalism. Sponsored professionalism refers to teaching practice and disciplinary knowledge endorsed by institutions and governments. Independent professionalism refers to the association with reflexive thinking and critical teaching practices. Constructivist classrooms demand independent teacher professionals rather than sponsored teacher professionals (Leung 51-52). Teacher training education requires developing 162 a sense of independent professionalism among teacher-trainers. Moreover, a teacher’s development is a long, continuous and multi-faceted career of long process. Many teachers in the survey attended only one or two in-service courses. So, there is a need for providing at least one in-service module a year to teachers in the entire career.  The Role of Teachers Most of the teachers in this survey belonged to the age group of 27-45. There was a special reason for taking this age group because these teachers got acquainted with all the educational, social and economic reforms that were the result of policymaking agenda during 1990s. So, this researcher thought that their lived experiences might reflect their responses and opinions about the pedagogical paradigm shift. Since the education system in Kerala is in a great transition in which more engagement would be required from teachers and learners, this researcher aims at providing an account of the real experience of the teachers and learners who are exposed to progressive pedagogical approaches. Majority of the practising teachers remain the least powerful agents in the planning of a curriculum. Such teachers do not get an opportunity in the planning of the new curriculum. The policy makers, other professional educationalists and other senior teachers should be involved their roles in syllabus planning, material production, assessment system and its implementation. Though the teacher in the classroom is the least powerful agency, she enjoys the most important position in the implementation of the new curriculum. Some of the reflections on this aspect are given below: Many a time, I feel that practising teachers’ opinions, recommendations and suggestions can be sought through online platforms by SCERT textbook committee. Respondent 7 163 The cluster meetings are the platforms for us to voice out our grievances and suggestions about classroom practices of new curriculum. Only a few teachers use blogs to share slides and other learning materials. Respondent 8 The classroom teacher gets the privilege of executing curricular policies and modifying them in accordance with learner’s requirements in each class. The noted Indian scholar Gayatri Spivak remarks: In these most definitely postcolonial times, a teacher needs to consider how the object of study gets constructed in the classroom to make it meaningful. We should therefore continue to engage ourselves in an unending dialogue with the texts; the teachers, and the institutions, for we know that finding meanings, making our learning relevant and knowing our private world is too complex processes to be dictated by curricular mandate from a far. (281) The personal voices or experiences of teachers are sidelined in the positivist paradigm of education. Even though the policy documents follow post-positivist/constructivist paradigm, the schools still follow the traditional prescribed form of state-guided educational policies. Teachers become tools for implementing a prescribed curriculum. For constructive paradigm to be truly effective, more space should be given for teachers to develop classroom curricula, materials and methodology 164  Heterogeneous Groups with Different Social Backgrounds The educational situation in Kerala is highly complex which represents a pastiche of multiple identities. Learners are influenced by their educational, social and cultural backgrounds, which they may or may not share with their fellow learners. During the field visits and discussions with teachers, the researcher found serious issues with the socio-cultural background of ESL learners in Kerala. As ESL students of Kerala are not identical subjects or homogeneous groups, the teacher faces challenges in the implementation of new curriculum due to students’ different socio-economic /cultural backgrounds. Even though learning is a process of self-regulation; the teacher can mediate learning by helping learners to internalize the use of cultural tools like language. The learning occurs when one gets socialized into a particular culture. The cultural capital of learners differs from individual to individual. Learning happens unconsciously at home under normal circumstances. The home culture of the child matters, when she enters a school. A school is considered to be a place of cultural literacy, where she meets with certain level of difficulty. The culture of literacy involves the process of theoretical learning which becomes increasingly disembodied and abstract. The level of difficulty is felt more by the minority/marginalized/rural students. As Kozulin remarked: The students from literate families have access to cultural tools like language and other skills which help to acquire knowledge. The students from the disadvantaged groups depend more on teachers because they do not get guidance from their background. (qtd. in Arul Kumar 138) When this researcher interviewed teachers who were working in underdeveloped, remote village schools, they remarked that many students did not follow English without using L1` in classrooms. Some of the students 165 also responded that English lessons should be more learner-friendly for the disadvantaged students. In a highly-literate state like Kerala, most of the students are third or fourth generation learners. The urban and semi-urban school students get ample support from parents and other external agencies. The rural schools on the other hand comprise many disadvantaged students. A few teachers in the survey, who had opportunities for teaching students belonging to indigenous tribal/minority-language groups, had found it difficult to transfer from L1 to L2. Malayalam is not the mother tongue of those tribes and only the literate tribes know how to read and write in Malayalam. Most of their parents had no formal education too.The teachers found it difficult to translate culture-appropriate terms into tribal language, when they practised bilingual approach. Some of the reflections are given below: An omnibus syllabus will not work among tribal students. Respondent 9 Teaching our tribal learners among main-stream learners poses a great challenge before English teacher. I do not think that the new curriculum never addresses these issues. Respondent 10 The British sociologist Basil Bernstein’s studies on the underachievement of working class people in state schools eventually led to the notion of elaborated cultural codes in the sociology of education. He observed that linguistic deprivation is another aspect of cultural deprivation. The middle class/well-educated people used the extensive code with an extensive set of formal vocabulary whereas the working class people used the restricted code which was more informal and personal in its expression. Even 166 though the middle class knew the restricted code, they knew how to resort to it whenever it was necessary (Bernstein 57-59). Similarly, the French philosopher Pierre Bourdiue’s term ‘cultural capital’ also suggested the advantage of middle-class children over their working class peers. “The advantage is in terms of tastes, knowledge and ideas associated with a particular class” (Peter 260). Bourdieu recognized that cultural capital could be embodied “as a disposition of mind and body, objectified as cultural goods and in its institutionalized state as, for example, educational qualification” (Nash 432). The dominant class always enjoyed cultural/social capital which enabled them to achieve professional success (Thapan 593). One of the main challenges of a language teacher is how to transact with students coming from different backgrounds. Even though mediation and scaffolding are good pedagogical platforms for providing productive possibilities for transformative practice, these strategies and their roles are very limited in actual classrooms. This researcher found that the new curriculum did not address such issues like how to accommodate the disadvantaged students and how cultural/social identities were treated in ESL classrooms. It is sad to note that the majority of the disadvantaged students are still ignored as they were treated in traditional classrooms. At this point of time, this researcher realised that the stakeholders and academicians needed to intervene in this matter. They should be critically aware of this ground level reality and initiate discussion to overcome the barriers. Many teachers cannot pay individual attention to each and every student in a class due to academic constraints. The teachers in a constructivist classroom make the disadvantaged students aware of their socio-cultural deprivation and sensitize them to change their condition that prevent them from achieving socio-economic success in public domain. The curriculum in 167 the constructivist classrooms should address learner’s lived experiences (Degner 43). Kinchole and Mc Laren remarked: The texts and their themes should be provided by both teachers and students who bring their experience for study and place that knowledge with the context in which it was taken place. The students are able to pick up these themes in assignments that are most meaningful and most relevant to their own lives and the content in which they work (qtd. in Aliakbari and Faraji 79). Moreover, curricular reforms generally address larger structures of centralized system of education. A reconceptualisation of constructivist paradigm through local focus is also necessary to address the students from marginalized or underprivileged social backgrounds.  Examination-Oriented Education When this researcher visited many schools, it was observed that many teachers were concerned about the content of textbooks. According to them, the textual content must be reduced in order to encourage learner-centered classrooms. A few teachers opined that the syllabus seemed to be too hectic for them. A couple of teachers thought that the texts based on KCF 2007 were more loaded than the revised text books of KCF 2013. In our current scenario, the researcher came to the conclusion that most of the problems related to the syllabus actually arose from their examination-related anxieties. The contemporary world needs people with qualities of original thinking to meet with the growing challenges, whereas, the education system in most of the countries is merely examination driven (Siddiqui 70). Kerala is not an exception to this. Majority of the parents and students think that passing examination with A plus grades only makes meaningful education. Some of the observations are given below: 168 If I spend extra time for group discussions or extempore practices based on the lessons, students and some parents suggest me follow only question and answers. It seems they like to be trained only for writing examinations. Respondent 11 The Head of the institutions and PTA pressurize us to cover the lessons within stipulated time table. Students also need only ‘important essay and paragraph questions’. The question papers based on new paradigm give no room for assessing learners’ analytical and critical thinking. Functional grammar questions can not only assess the critical thinking /creative faculty of learners. Respondent 12 The colonial rulers began textbook-oriented education in India. The pre-colonial education in India was mostly an oral practice. The colonial rulers systematised Indian school system during the nineteenth century. In this twenty first century, we still follow the colonial system of text book- oriented/examination-oriented education. Most of the competitive tests in India, examine the analytical and critical skill of the job aspirants only minimally. The predominant pattern of examinations is based on rote memory. In other words, the examination system and its pattern reflectively endorsed the behavioral mode of learning. The standardized tests perpetuate the divisive policy by eliminating ‘the looser’. Even though NCF and KCF stand for progressive philosophies of learning, students are still conditioned to learn for clearing examinations. It is ironical that rewards and competitions are not the highlighted goals of constructivist paradigm. Both critical 169 pedagogy and holistic education tenets are antithetical to the perpetuated divisive policy of academic education.  Unmanageable Classrooms Most of the class rooms are overcrowded in Kerala. The average class room consists of 25- 40 students. Some of the teachers expressed their apprehensions about the effectiveness of discourse making in overcrowded classes. One of the reflections is given below: It is difficult for me to induce critical reflection among thirty students at a time. We generally encourage the students who respond to us. Respondent 13 This researcher observed that many of the teachers could not pay individual attention to learners. When the administrative constraints were taken into consideration, it was found that many teachers’ encountered daily issues like large class size, rigid time table system etc. These kinds of structural constraints negatively affect the performance of teachers. Even though mediation and scaffolding are good pedagogical platforms for providing productive possibilities for transformative practice, the viability of this strategy may be very limited in overcrowded classrooms. The key stages in a typical scaffold activity can be: (a) Getting the learner interested (b) Simplifying the task (c) Inviting participation (d) Providing direction 170 (e) Modelling task response (f) Organizing guided performance (g) Eliciting independent performance  Time Constraints The usual duration of an English period is 40-45 minutes. The survey showed that students and teachers unanimously opined that more time should be given to English in school timetable. Many teachers perceived that 40-45 minutes were inadequate for them to teach English in this new paradigm. 4.19. Regressions The researcher observed a few regressions (a return to the previous learning atmosphere here) in connection with examination-oriented education noted below. Even though the new paradigm shift occurs, several behaviorist practices are still being followed in the language classrooms.  Tuition classes As the world we live in become increasingly globalized, most of the students believe that English actes as a pre-requisite for getting better employment. Considered to be both a link and library language, English is the medium of higher education in India. The increasing demand for competent speakers necessitates the students to learn English effectively. So students prefer tuition classes for picking up English. A major chunk of students still go to tuition centres which follow the behavioural methods of learning such as drilling, rote memorization and reinforcement of learning content. Most commercial tuition centers are product-oriented and promote unhealthy competition instead of creating a healthy learning culture. 171  Class notes The teachers dictated notes in the class or the students were asked to write down class notes in traditional classrooms. Students generally mugg up these notes in order to score good marks in examinations. Conversely, the constructivist pedagogy did not promote any kind of class notes or study materials which made examinations easy. Ironically, the lion’s share of the students liked to have class notes. They may be conditioned for passing examinations with good percentage of marks. Some teachers also preferred giving class notes in order to make students prepare for examinations. Many teachers might surmise that students are cognitively engaged while notes are taken down. The students, who took class notes, were less actively involved in the class than their instructors perceived them to be (Fassinger 90-92). Multiple answers or responses reflected the divergent thinking of students. The readymade study materials had no place in the curriculum. Tuition centres, pressure from the academic bodies and the examination system seriously posed a serious threat to the new paradigm in improving classroom practice. In accordance with constructive paradigms, the teacher is supposed to throw open-ended questions in order to stimulate higher levels of cognition. Multiple answers or responses reflect the divergent thinking of students. Even as creativity is sought to be on the one hand, on the other, students still prefer tuition classes and lecture notes. This kind of pedagogical paradox is visible in many aspects of the curriculum.  Grammar-the problem child It is generally believed that grammar is the pillar of one’s own linguistic competence. Many students depended on tuition classes for learning English grammar. The structural syllabus gave prominence for teaching 172 grammatical structures and vocabulary. Most of our competitive examinations like SSC, UPSC, and IBPS test the grammatical/linguistic competence of the learners. Drawing upon the opinions of students, teachers and parents ‘still’ prefer special coaching for grammar. Most of the students in this survey recorded that grammar learning was difficult for them. Interestingly, a lion’s share of the teachers believed that traditional grammar lessons were more effective than the new one. The traditional grammar teaching was based on Presentation-Practice-Production model. But many second language theorists believe that knowing grammar does not guarantee communicative skills in a second language. Traditional grammar is taught deductively in which usages and examples are taught, whereas applied linguists like Pit Corder supported inductive method of grammar teaching. In this connection, Corder observes: Learning as fundamentally ‘an inductive approach’ but one which was controlled and facilitated by descriptions and explanations given at the appropriate moment and formulated in a way which is appropriate to the maturity, knowledge, and sophistication of the learner. (133) Krashen believes that language use is a product of unconscious process of acquisition. The consciously learnt language items may not be usable for language in a particular context. Language use is meant for particular context. According to this scholar: Language acquisition is an unconscious process; Language acquisition is not usually aware of the fact that they are acquiring language, but are only aware of the fact that they are using the language for communication. The result of language acquisition, acquired competence, is also subconscious. We are 173 not consciously aware of the rules of the languages we have acquired. Instead, we have a ‘feel’ for correctness. (“Principles and Practices” 10) Grammatical sentences ‘sound’ right or ‘feel’ right, and errors feel wrong, even if we do not consciously know what rule is violated. While interviewing the students, this researcher found that they failed to use English with grammatical accuracy. There has been a long-running debate about the formal teaching of English grammar among ELT practitioners and teachers. Many teachers think that the formal teaching of grammar may deride the creativity of children. The new syllabus in Kerala does not present grammar as a separate entity, and it is not taught explicitly. The new textbooks follow inductive approach to grammar. It gives greater importance to the functional aspect of grammar rather than the formal aspect. The pedagogic justification for introducing grammar at the secondary level includes the idea that the students’ knowledge of grammar will help them act as ‘conscious monitors’ while they perform editing of the discourses. The curriculum reformers think that if learners know about the various syntactic structures, they will be able to perform linguistic and stylistic analysis of literary discourses. During the interviews, most of the teachers reported that students could not do editing without the support of teachers. Many teachers strongly believe that a proper knowledge of grammatical structures is necessary and students will imbibe the language with the help of grammar rules. The revised textbooks of KCF 2013 gave more prominence to the formal teaching of grammar. These textbooks presented grammar items in a more deductive manner than the textbooks of KCF 2007. Most of the teachers liked to follow the traditional deductive method to teach grammar because it 174 was easy to implement. The formal teaching of grammar was more teacher- oriented and students became silent listeners. Constructivists assume that grammatical knowledge is acquired non- consciously and this paradigm favours discourse-oriented pedagogy. This kind of pedagogy helps the learners acquire both structural and functional aspects of language. The structural and functional aspects of grammar help the learners to generate sentences. The syntactic and morphological errors and the spelling and punctuation errors are rectified through the process of editing. The primary level editing is related to editing of sentence grammar. The secondary level editing implies editing within the domain of syntax and morphology. The learners are supposed to construct grammatical concepts by analysing a certain body of linguistic data available from the discourse. Skehan proposed the following principles: a) Exposure to language at an appropriate level of difficulty. b) Engagement in meaning-focused interaction in the language. c) Opportunities for learners to notice or attend to linguistic form while using the language. d) Opportunities to expand the language resources make use of lexical and syntactic overtime.(“A Framework” 50-55) The renowned Canadian linguist Stephen Krashen asserts that language teaching is predominantly teacher fronted. Meaning-focused activities are promoted by the teacher in the classrooms. These activities stress learner’s communicative activities and problem- solving tasks rather than grammatical exercises. Language skills should not be taught in isolation. The teacher is supposed to integrate all the four basic skills wherever necessary. Learning-centered 175 pedagogy promotes incidental correction in which the learners can make errors and teachers can minimize errors to an extent. Some ELT practitioners promote systematic correction whereas others stand for incidental correction. According to Prabhu, incidental correction, in contrast to systematic correction, is a) confined to a particular token (i.e. the error itself is corrected, but there is no generalization to the type of error it represents); (b) only responsive (i.e. not leading to any preventive or ; (c) facilitative (i.e. regarded by learners as a part of getting objective and not being more important than other aspects of the activity); and (d) transitory (i.e. drawing attention to itself only for a moment-not for as long as systematic correction does). (61-62)  Classroom Practices Classroom discourses are an important part of the new paradigm.“Human learning is specifically social in nature” (Vygotsky, “Mind in Society” 89). Both the teachers and students recorded that they had classroom discussion. But majority of the students said that teachers had led this kind of discussion. Only a minority of students initiated such kind of classroom discussions. The teachers were supposed to raise appropriate questions based on the factors such as classroom size, the teaching situation and pressure from the curriculum. When this researcher visited many English classrooms, it was found that many students turned out to be passive listeners during classroom discussions. Students are in fact culturally conditioned to be passive and accept the authority of teachers or syllabus. The other reason may be that they feel uncomfortable, when they speak in English. The teachers also have pressure from the prescribed syllabus in order to complete the textual tasks. So the teachers sometimes sideline these questions which are supposed to promote critical thinking. One of the basic means of teaching is 176 talk. It is through talk that children actively engage and teachers constructively intervene. Alexander divides three types of classroom based talk in his research. i. ‘role’ means mechanically practicing facts, ideas and routines; ii. ‘recitation’ refers to the accumulation of knowledge and understanding through questions to test the pupil’s previous knowledge or to apply them clues in the questions to work out; iii. ‘instruction/ exposition’ refers to the instructions. These instructions include ‘what to do’; this technique imparts information and explains facts, principles. Teachers can also employ two additional kind of classroom talk (28-32). Similarly, discussions are effective strategies for students who think and respond independently. Questions are used as tools for engaging discussions. The act of questioning is the most powerful stratagem employed by teachers like Vishnu Sharma, the author of The Panchathantra), Confucius, Socrates and Descarte. Paulo Freire made a clear distinction between banking and problem-posing (Issue-based curriculum here) models of education. Banking model of education tries to make students adjust to the world by controlling their critical thinking and creative power whereas problem based learning makes students think about the socio-economical oppressions in their world around ( Freire 77-78). A point to be noted here is that the new textbooks give a special place for ‘pause and reflect’. This is totally ignored in classroom practice. A short period of reflective silence is significant for intense engagement with the subject of discussion. The teacher can make this time more productively by asking them to write down the important points and their doubts. The students are asked to share the ideas in groups and continue the discussion with the 177 help of teachers. It is the duty of teachers to transform the classroom into a “democratic public sphere”(Giroux 35).  Learner Centered Curriculum From an analysis of the questionnaire, it was inferred that many teachers supported learner-centered curriculum. Rooted in cognitive assumptions about language learning, learner-centered theorists focused on insight formation rather than habit formation. Learner-centered curriculum treats language as a communication system which is for a synthesis of textual, interpersonal and ideational purposes. The teacher is supposed to use authentic language for communication and introduce language through discursive activity. The teachers should offer choice of responses to the learner and tolerate errors as a part of the learning process. Learner-centred curriculum places learners at the centre of goal- setting and choice of methodology. The learners are not offered any freedom for choosing the methodology in this new paradigm shift.A constructive classroom requires critical learners who are supposed to take self- responsibility for their own learning. In the Indian context, choice-based courses are offered for higher/advanced level learners. A pertinent question here is: Does the new curriculum only confine learner-centredness to learner’s engagement with classroom practices?. The noted Australian linguist David Nunan observes that the proponents of learner-centred curriculum are more interested in gaining the totality of language rather than concentrating on communicative or linguistic skills (ch 3). Practising learner-centred curriculum involves a gradual process in which learner training practices and learner autonomy co-exist to create an interface between the learner’s individual identity and social identity. Indian 178 classrooms are teacher-dominated classrooms. So the new curriculum creates a democratic space for learners to think and express their views in classrooms. In fact, some of the senior teachers and parents shared their apprehensions about the viability of learner-centredness in English classrooms. They were afraid that proper learning might not be possible in learner-centred classrooms. Their perennial tension stemmed from their adherence to traditional/behavioural notions about learning.  Transfer of Knowledge Language learning should facilitate dialogic practice. In early formative years, the child learns a kind of practical knowledge or experience through gestures and words which are expressed in culturally meaningful ways. Schools can and should no longer remain mere delivery systems to market official ideas but have to become social sites where students learn to develop critical thinking ( Freire and Shor 13). Rooted in Frankfurt school and other theoretical schools of Humanities, CP tries to raise the students’ ‘critical consciousnesses and enables learners to challenge the domination and subjugation distorting their cognition and behavior. As Norton and Toohey observe that language is a practice that constructs and is constructed by how language learners understand social surrounding and possibilities for the future. They further point out that both language learning and language teaching are political processes in ESL context (ch1).The traditional practice of behavioural classrooms involved transmitting knowledge and reproduced it in examinations. Owing to over concentration on meritorious education system and academic constraints, the new paradigm shift cannot effectively materialize the transfer of knowledge in classrooms. It is sad to point out that a teacher in Kerala is counted as a ‘good teacher’ by parents and students only if she completes the entire syllabus within a limited period. The scope of 179 curriculum is limited to textbooks and paradoxically, all the teachers expressed their concern over finishing the syllabus within time framework. It is important to note here that the effectiveness of constructive curriculum depends on many factors including teacher autonomy. The notion of ‘one size fits all’ puts teachers into trouble. As a second language, English language learning requires more time and effort. So the notion of ‘one size fits all’ attitude pressurizes teachers to act as mere instructors/demonstrators rather than ‘transformative intellectuals’ (Giroux 376-379).  Assessment and Evaluation The main purpose of the traditional assessment is to distinguish or filter out the unsuccessful ones and put students in agony or ecstasy depending upon their performance in the examinations. Brennan rightly pointed out: The process of an evaluation is wasted, if the information merely records and no further action is taken. The whole purpose is that of refinement of the curricular process, of education: consequently the outcomes of evaluation must feedback as action in relation to the process, the pupil or both. (93) The traditional pattern of examination tests the mastery of linguistic and grammatical skills at the desired level. The achievement tests are set to check the content validity. The questions asked by teachers, are mostly from the prescribed texts, meant to assess the skill of inference. To put it briefly, the teachers only try to assess the student’s skills in a familiar format of testing. Examinations are considered to be the indicators of progress and offer feed back to the curriculum designers. 180 It is often debated that the traditional evaluation method is marked by teachers’ impression and prejudice. Insel and Jacobson observe that “teachers’ ratings are coloured by their attitudes towards learners. These attitudes and general impressions may be based on just a few key criteria such as frequency of hand raising, frequency of correct answers etc” (90). Teachers lead the class with the ‘self promoted’ students and leave the ‘dumb’ back benchers or slow learners to look after themselves in traditional classrooms. The practice of assessment system has undergone a drastic change in tune with the humanistic psychology. In this context, NCF 2005 pointed out that language education should give more importance to oral examination and creative writing which would need continuous guidance and monitoring. It also further pointed out that due stress should be laid upon the ability to use the language in speech and writing for academic purposes, at work place and in community. Constructivism calls for the shift from a skill based approach to a knowledge-based approach. It recommends assessment portfolios instead of traditional tests. These are the systematic collections of student’s work measured against predetermined scoring criteria. These criteria may include rating scales, checklists etc (O’Malley and Pierce 96). A language teacher can keep a wide variety of students’ portfolios like performance portfolio, working portfolio and assessment portfolio. Portfolios are supposed to be the records of the student’s all-round development including soft skills, group behaviour and assessment of learning. Fortunately, most of the teachers involved in this survey expressed the need for a revised evaluation system in tune with the new paradigm. Interestingly, the students reflect their thoughts and opinions in examinations. Moreover, both teachers and students preferred continuous assessment rather than periodic assessment. Though new text books based on constructivism are followed, these changes have not percolated into the level of examinations fully. Even now, most of the classrooms in India continue to be quite 181 traditional in their approach to testing and evaluation. Our examinations still follow the trimester pattern of academic year. The glorified ‘grade system’ has become a ghost of the traditional ‘mark system’. If a student gets maximum A grade, he/she will be admitted to a good higher secondary schools. Grade/Mark becomes the bench mark for assessing a student’s profile. This ‘belief system’ of grading raises serious threats to the smooth running of new paradigm. Thus, the teachers and students are forced to produce maximum grades in every school. Even though many Keralites read a wonderful Japanese novel called Totto-Chan, they still send their children to be educated in a ‘Successful School’. Marks and grades have such pernicious effects on the whole society.The traditional system gives more importance for testing than assessment. Test is only a method or an instrument to assess students’ performance. The ‘wash back’ system of public examination and grading system make our curriculum more problematic. We often forget the fact that the success of teaching depends on not only the methods or approaches but also on assessment. Assessment can be used as an umbrella term for observing student performance. In a test, most of the questions are based on the text and there is little scope for a child’s creative thinking or writing in the new examination system. Some questions which intended to assess child’s reflections are also introduced in familiar format. Students are given training to tackle such questions from schools and tuition centres. So the researcher finds that there is no room for a child’s creative writing in the new examination system. Unfortunately, same traditional assessment techniques are followed in the new examination system. The new paradigm emphasizes on continuous/formative assessment. The formative assessment marks a shift from measurement to description. Formative assessment focuses on students’ performance as a process of ongoing process. The assessment pattern should give little room for 182 reproduction and memory. Learning orientation should be given priority, so that the focus is on ‘mastery and improvement’ rather than outperforming others’ (Baker & Wigerfield 455). Chater suggested that teachers could share responsibility for assessment with learners. Pupils may be encouraged to read, mark and discuss each other’s work (29). Ultimately from peer evaluation, they can graduate to self-assessment. Students are not considered as mere empty vessels. A proper approach to assessment, on the lines of constructive pedagogy is supposed to empower the learner in using language skills for various advantages. 4.20 Flaws of Theory  Constructivism as a learning philosophy: It is basically a meaning- making philosophy. It is highly influenced by educational psychology principles of Piaget and Vygotsky.  Constructivism as not a teaching technique: As a new theory, many of its implications have not yet been made explicit. Many interpretations are possible in it. Constructivist views of learning have been well- developed whereas constructivist views of teaching have not yet been formulated (Prawat 509-512). The new paradigm demands a broad perspective change in curricular content, textual production and classroom learning in regard to English language skills. The proposed paradigm shift aims at transforming learners, teachers, parents, stakeholders and the entire society. The constructivist classrooms ideologically address the question of how far our belief/value systems promote individual and social transformations through English language learning. The findings of this study will be discussed in the next chapter in detail. 183 INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT, 2018. CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 5.1 Introduction As a theory of learning, Constructivism assumed that the individual constructed knowledge through her interactions with the external world. The NCF 2005 proposed constructivist approach to teach all subjects including English. Based on the guidelines of NCF 2005, Kerala developed and implemented its first curriculum framework (KCF 2007) during 2007-2008. The study analyzed the efficacy of constructivist curriculum paradigm shift in English language education across Kerala. This study gave feedback about this pedagogy in the formative stage, which would help in taking decisions regarding the improvement of it, which in turn was very much helpful to the policy makers, students and teaching community at large. 5.2 Major Findings On the basis of the results obtained from the questionnaires, classroom observations and interviews, the following findings have been drawn and an interpretation of the data has been formulated. Positive Changes  The new paradigm set the ball rolling towards achieving excellent standards in secondary education. Despite the implementation flaws, the feedback from students, parents and teachers and the direct observations, taken as a whole, recognized the significance of the new paradigm across the board and all the stakeholders and that the new paradigm has made noticeable impact on the students. 185  The attitude towards English learning has tremendously changed. Majority of students saw English as a tool for empowerment. They thought that a considerable knowledge of English would help them for finding out better employment and higher education careers.  The students showed great enthusiasm for Communicative English. In their feedback many of them remarked that more hours for communicative English should be provided for them. Some institutions offer special courses for communicative English during summer holidays. It is important here to be noted that competence in written communication is as important as spoken communication for professional success. The new text books gave ample textual situations for both of these. 5.3 Flaws of implementation  Teacher education The teaching practice session only gave the ground knowledge of what learning was. Most of the teacher trainees in Kerala prepared lesson plans in tune with the existing text books. But many of them did not possess sound knowledge about contemporary pedagogical concepts. Most of the teachers admitted that their knowledge of constructivist paradigm was mainly based on in- service courses. A few teachers admitted that they depended on website articles. Teacher training education requires developing a sense of independent professionalism among teacher- trainers. Moreover, the teacher development is a continuous and multi- faceted career of long process 186  The Role of teachers Most of the teachers in this survey belonged to the age group of 27-45. There was a special reason for taking this age group because these teachers got acquainted with all the educational, social and economic reforms that were the result of policymaking agenda during 1990s.So, this researcher thought that their lived experience might reflect in their responses and opinions about the pedagogical paradigm shift. Since the education system in Kerala is in a great transition in which more engagement is required from teachers and learners, this researcher aims to give an account of the real experience of the teachers and learners who are exposed to progressive pedagogical approaches  Heterogeneous Groups with Different Social Backgrounds The educational situation in Kerala is highly complex which represented a pastiche of multiple identities. Learners are influenced by their educational, social and cultural backgrounds, which they may or may not share with their fellow learners.. Even though learning is a process of self- regulation, the teacher can mediate learning by helping learners to internalize the use of cultural tools like language. The learning occurred when one got socialized into a particular culture.  Examination –oriented education When this researcher visited many schools, it was found that many teachers concerned about the content of text books. According to them, the textual content must be reduced in order to encourage learner centered classrooms. In our current scenario, the researcher thought that most of the 187 problems related with the syllabus actually raised from their examination blues.  Time constraints The usual duration of English period was 40-45 minutes. Through the survey, both students and teachers unanimously opined that more English hours should be included in school timetable. Many teachers thought that 40- 45 minutes were inadequate for them to teach English in this new paradigm.  Unmanageable classrooms Drawing upon field visits and discussions with teachers, most of the classes were overcrowded in Kerala. The average class room consisted of 25- 40 students. Some of the teachers expressed their apprehensions about the effectiveness of discourse making in overcrowded classes. The researcher had already observed that many of the teachers could not pay individual attention towards learners. 5.4 Suggestions Within the framework of the existing secondary school curriculum reforms, this investigator, in the light of the present study, arrived at the following conclusion, which would largely improve English classrooms based on constructivist paradigm.  The present study revealed that there was a clear disparity visible in the variability of students across state. To be noted, the new curricular reforms like its predecessors ignore the requirements /needs of the learners. The learning requirements of the students vary from learners to learners based on the socio-economic/cultural backgrounds. Before prescribing textbooks, the policy makers can conduct need assessment surveys. Need assessment is a pedagogical tool that weighs the 188 objectives of a teaching programme against the requirements of learners which helps to understand what makes learning more effective based on the factors like age, sex, gender and the purpose of studying English. Even though the constructivist curriculum in its current paradigm broadly followed the ideological positions of critical pedagogy and critical discourse analysis, the prescribed textbooks took into consideration of only average and above average learners from better socio-cultural backgrounds.  The constructivist paradigm hardly addressed the issues of the underprivileged learners of the state. KCF 2013 only mentioned the concept of ‘inclusive education’, but did not give any remedies or suggestions for developing pedagogical strategies for the underprivileged learners. For constructivist paradigm to be truly effective, learners and teachers should be included in curricular planning including planning of methodology, preparation of syllabus and contents. Since Indian system of education is bureaucratic in nature, a minimum level of flexibility in educational policies including language planning can be ensured by the state governments and its educational bodies. At least, teachers who teach the disadvantaged students from tribal /other under privileged backgrounds can be given the freedom to choose and develop a classroom curriculum suitable for particular context. It is also important that the students should develop their meaning-making discourses within their known-context. They could be transformed as ‘critical learners’ only if such problems/issues are known to them. The new textbooks should incorporate more ‘localized themes and contents’ which are familiar to students. Teacher autonomy should be developed in order to select the teaching materials and develop the daily curriculum for her classrooms. 189  The system of evaluation and examination should be revamped. The nomenclature of continuous and Comprehensive Assessment (CCA) becomes synonymous with the grading system.  Apart from the grading system, knowledge-based student assessment should be emphasized more rather than skill based approach. Taking language acquisition as an organic process, a yearly or half-yearly test would be impossible for analysing the acquisition process at a given point of time. Self-evaluation inventories should be included in assessment system. Tests should be conducted continuously. The students’ language proficiency, analytical/critical thinking should be tested in examination system. The learners’ feedback system on classroom practice and teacher’s performance should also be included in it. After implementing the Right to Education Act 2009, Continuous and Comprehensive Assessment (CCA) system has been introduced in the curriculum of various state governments. Continuous assessment can be effectively done by incorporating innovative assessment techniques like portfolios.  Information and Communication Technology (ICT) skills can play a great role in the field of education. George Siemens, the Canadian theorist viewed that the traditional ways of constructing knowledge would be modified into technology-enhanced knowledge system. Being an educational school of approach, Constructivism only addresses the epistemological discourses of the physical world. The post- positivist paradigm is marked with the synergy of knowledge (episteme) and skill (techno).A new way of learning is possible through the digital world. Teachers can easily download dictionaries like Oxford Dictionary Online, Cambridge Dictionary Online etc. 190 Since the mobile phones are banned inside school campus, teachers use desktop facilities for using ICT skills. Microblogging/ students’ blogs could be used as an effective learning tool. A teacher can upload a picture/an advertisement or a poem in it and students can express their view points through this blog. Teachers and students can also access Project Guttenberg (http://www.gutenberg.com) for getting free online books. Teachers can access youtube (www.youtube.com) for downloading lectures given by famous professors. 5.5 Limitation of the study  The present study is largely a qualitative study. The same can be conducted by quantifying the perceptions of the samples concerned to address the heterogeneity, if any in the population.  The study is mainly restricted to the objectives and syllabi based on KCF 2007 and KCF 2013 proposed by SCERT, Kerala.  The sample of study is confined only to the secondary school teachers and students drawn from five districts of Kerala. The present study has sought an accord between the desired standards of new paradigm and the actual classroom practice. Though both of them seem to be partially incongruous in the existing education structure of Kerala, the new paradigm shift will have an ample scope for transforming Kerala Society gradually. The constructivist pedagogy does not offer solutions in its theoretical positions. It provides teachers and learners a new impetus to develop a ‘critical eye’ towards the perceived notions. 191 INDULEKHA K. R. “ CONSTRUCTIVIST PARADIGM IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE KERALA EXPERIENCE .” THESIS. 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Gender : ................................................ c. Educational Qualification : ................................................ d. Years of Teaching Experience : ................................................ e. Personal Hobbies : ................................................ f. Whether you belong to : Rural/ Urban g. Personal Achievements, if any : ................................................ RESPONSE SHEET 1. What is your assessment of the current curriculum paradigm? 2. How do you make English teaching and learning interesting for students? 3. What do you consider the biggest classroom teaching challenges which English teachers face during classroom interaction? 4. Are you satisfied with the current curriculum paradigm, its theoretical approach and classroom practices? 5. What are your suggestions for the improvement of the new paradigm in the English curriculum? LIST OF INSTITUTIONS PARTICIPATED IN THE SURVEY Sl District Govt/Aided Name of the School No 1 Thiruvanamthapuram Govt Govt. Model Boys Higher Secondary School, Thycaud, Thiruvanamnthapuram Aided Sree Narayana Higher Secondary School, Uzhamalaikkal,Nedumangad. 2 Thrissur Govt Govt Vocational Higher Secondary School , Ayyanthole. Aided CMS Higher Secondary School, Thrissur 3 Wayanad Govt Govt . Higher Secondary School, Vythiri. Aided Vijaya Hr. Secondary School, Pulpaly. 4 Kannur Govt Govt Higher secondary school , Vellur Aided Ancharakkandi Higher secondary school Ancherakkandi 5 Kasargod Govt Govt. Fisheries High School, Kanhangad. Aided Rajah’s Higher Secondary School, Neeleswaram LIST OF INSTITUTIONS PARTICIPATED IN THE FIELD WORK District Name of the School 1 Thiruvanamthapuram 1. Govt. Model Higher Secondary School, Thycaud, Thiruvanamnthapuram 2. Uzhamalakkal Higher secondary school nedumnagad 3. Cottonhill Higher secondary school for girls, thiruvanamthapuram 1. Govt higher secondary school for girls 2 Kozhikode Balusseri 2. Govt Mappilaa higher secondary school Koyilandy 3. Govt. high school Sivapuram, Unnikulam 1. Govt. HSS Chelari 3 Malappuram 2. Govt.HSS Pattikkad 3. Govt. Model HSS ,Calicut University Campus. 1. GVHSS Pathiripala, Palakkad 4 Palakkad 2. Karimpuzha HSS, Palakkad 3. GHSS Muthalamada, Palakkad 1. Govt. HSS Padra, Kasargod 5 Kasargod 2. Govt.HSS Adhoor, Kasargod 3. Govt.HSS Paivalika , Kasargod 6 Wayanad 1. Govt. HSS Meppadi 2. Govt. HSS Kattikulam 3. Govt. HSS Vaduvanchal 7 Idukki 1. Govt. HSS , Rajakkad 2. St.George’s HSS, Kattappana 3. Govt.Tribal HSS, Poomala FIELD NOTE Observation 5-6-2013 I am observing Maneesh, who is taking the first unit of Ninth Standard English textbook. He opens the lesson with a review from the yesterday’s topic of discussion. He opens the lesson by discussing a holy grove nearby that school. The students compliment the discussion by adding their points about the conservation of such bio reserves. I am interested to see how he will handle such an issue of global warming by discussing the relevance of bio reserves. He presented a variety of literature to accentuate the points of this lesson. His resources and literature was efficient. He has a good rapport with students. Follow Up I encouraged Maneesh for making classes livelier by incorporating ICT strategies. He showed me the Smart classroom of that school where they installed some useful software for teaching pronunciation. He told me students were fond of using these equipments. 12-7-2013 I am now observing Divya , who is taking the first unit of the Eigth Standard English textbook. The class seems to be a bit noisy. At first, she appears to be a little bit nervous to manage the students. Slowly, she reviews the previous lessons, some students respond well. The majority of them remain silent. But she tries to encourage them in discussions by raising familiar questions to them. FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS APPENDIX 1 Questionnaire for Teacher Dear Teacher, I shall be grateful for your responses to this questionnaire which is about the efficacy of Constructivist Curriculum Paradigm (English Language Teaching) at secondary level schools in Kerala. The information given in this questionnaire will be used only for research purposes and will be kept confidential. Thanks for your cooperation. a. Name : ................................................ b. Gender : ................................................ c. Educational Qualification : ................................................ d. Years of Teaching Experience : ................................................ e. Personal Hobbies : ................................................ f. Whether you belong to : Rural/ Urban g. Personal Achievements, if any : ................................................ RESPONSE SHEET 1. What is your assessment of the current curriculum paradigm? 2. How do you make English teaching and learning interesting for students? 3. What do you consider the biggest classroom teaching challenges which English teachers face during classroom interaction? 4. Are you satisfied with the current curriculum paradigm, its theoretical approach and classroom practices? 5. What are your suggestions for the improvement of the new paradigm in the English curriculum? LIST OF INSTITUTIONS PARTICIPATED IN THE SURVEY Sl District Govt/Aided Name of the School No 1 Thiruvanamthapuram Govt Govt. Model Boys Higher Secondary School, Thycaud, Thiruvanamnthapuram Aided Sree Narayana Higher Secondary School, Uzhamalaikkal,Nedumangad. 2 Thrissur Govt Govt Vocational Higher Secondary School , Ayyanthole. Aided CMS Higher Secondary School, Thrissur 3 Wayanad Govt Govt . Higher Secondary School, Vythiri. Aided Vijaya Hr. Secondary School, Pulpaly. 4 Kannur Govt Govt Higher secondary school , Vellur Aided Ancharakkandi Higher secondary school Ancherakkandi 5 Kasargod Govt Govt. Fisheries High School, Kanhangad. Aided Rajah’s Higher Secondary School, Neeleswaram LIST OF INSTITUTIONS PARTICIPATED IN THE FIELD WORK District Name of the School 1 Thiruvanamthapuram 1. Govt. Model Higher Secondary School, Thycaud, Thiruvanamnthapuram 2. Uzhamalakkal Higher secondary school nedumnagad 3. Cottonhill Higher secondary school for girls, thiruvanamthapuram 1. Govt higher secondary school for girls 2 Kozhikode Balusseri 2. Govt Mappilaa higher secondary school Koyilandy 3. Govt. high school Sivapuram, Unnikulam 1. Govt. HSS Chelari 3 Malappuram 2. Govt.HSS Pattikkad 3. Govt. Model HSS ,Calicut University Campus. 1. GVHSS Pathiripala, Palakkad 4 Palakkad 2. Karimpuzha HSS, Palakkad 3. GHSS Muthalamada, Palakkad 1. Govt. HSS Padra, Kasargod 5 Kasargod 2. Govt.HSS Adhoor, Kasargod 3. Govt.HSS Paivalika , Kasargod 6 Wayanad 1. Govt. HSS Meppadi 2. Govt. HSS Kattikulam 3. Govt. HSS Vaduvanchal 7 Idukki 1. Govt. HSS , Rajakkad 2. St.George’s HSS, Kattappana 3. Govt.Tribal HSS, Poomala FIELD NOTE Observation 5-6-2013 I am observing Maneesh, who is taking the first unit of Ninth Standard English textbook. He opens the lesson with a review from the yesterday’s topic of discussion. He opens the lesson by discussing a holy grove nearby that school. The students compliment the discussion by adding their points about the conservation of such bio reserves. I am interested to see how he will handle such an issue of global warming by discussing the relevance of bio reserves. He presented a variety of literature to accentuate the points of this lesson. His resources and literature was efficient. He has a good rapport with students. Follow Up I encouraged Maneesh for making classes livelier by incorporating ICT strategies. He showed me the Smart classroom of that school where they installed some useful software for teaching pronunciation. He told me students were fond of using these equipments. 12-7-2013 I am now observing Divya , who is taking the first unit of the Eigth Standard English textbook. The class seems to be a bit noisy. At first, she appears to be a little bit nervous to manage the students. Slowly, she reviews the previous lessons, some students respond well. The majority of them remain silent. But she tries to encourage them in discussions by raising familiar questions to them. FIELD PHOTOGRAPHS