A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 DECLARATION I, Anilkumar, P.M., do hereby declare that this thesis entitled "A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS", has not been previously formed the basis for the award of a Degree, Diploma, Tikl:e or Recognition. Calicut University, Anilkumar, P.M. 20-12-2005. A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 Dr AYISHABI T.C. Professor, Department of Education, University of Calicut, Calicut University, 673 635. 20-12-2005. CERTIFICATE Certified that this thesis entitled "A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS", is a record of bona fide study and research carried out by Mr Anilkumal-, P.M., under my supervision and guidance and that it has not been previously formed the basis for the award of a Degree, Diploma, Title or Recognition. Dr AYISHABI, T.C. A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT The investigator owes a debt of gratitude to his supervising teacher, Prof. (Dr) Ayishabi T.C., Department of Education, University of Calicut, for her patience, affection and encouragement shown through out the study. She has been a friend, philosopher, and guide and she has made this perceived scary task into an easy and accomplishable reality. Her influence on the investigator will never cease to exist. The invesi.:igator thinks it Is more than a duty to thank Prof. (Dr) V. Sumangala, Head, Department of Education, and Prof. (Dr) P. Kelu, former Head, Department of Education, University of Calicut, for being very magnanimous in providing the facilities required by him for the completion of the study. He has countless people to thank for their support, encouragement, and love during his long journey throughout the last few years. It is with utmost respect and love that the investigator remembers late Prof. K. Rama Rao, former Principal, RIMSE, Mysore, for his assistance and guidance in preparing the tools. He aclmowledges wholeheartedly the readiness shown by this very summit of right living for permitting the investigator to use items prepared by him. May his soul rest in peace. It is with sincerity that the investigator remembers Dr A.R. Seetharam, Principal, Dr Y.N. Sridhar, former Principal, and Dr C. Gurumurthy, Reader, RIMSE, Mysore, for their suggestions and guidance at the preliminary stages of the preparation of the Moral Maturity Inventory way back in 1993. The kindness and co-operation extended by Sri P. Balakrishnan, DRG in English, Prof. C.P. Ramachandran (Rtd.), Department of English, Payyanur College, Payyanur , secondary and higher secondary English teachers, too many to mention by name, in providing expert judgement are gratefully acknowledged. The investigator takes this opportunity to thank Sri N.K. Vijayan, Kannur University, for providing reference materials when required by him. . The investigator's reverential pranams to Swami Sattwasthanandaji Maharaj, Ramakrishna Math. It was he who encouraged the investigator to continue to be persistent through out the study. His inspiring words instilled in him confidence whenever he seemed to be lacking in it. Though expression through words is not sufficient the investigator wishes to place on record his deepest thanks to all heads, teachers, and pupils of various institutions, without the co-operation and generosity of whom this study would not have seen the light of day. C.U. Campus, ~nilkumarP, .M. 20-12-2005. A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES LIST OF FIGURES LIST OF APPENDICES Chapter Title Page No. I INTRODUCTION 1-26 II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 27-209 111 METHODOLOGY 210-244 I V ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATIONS 245-290 v SUMMARY OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS 291-305 REFERENCES 306-338 APPENDICES A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 LIST OF TABLES Table Title Page No. No. 1 , The 84 values suggested by NCERT 71 2 Details of values to be included in the curriculum 74 as suggested by Rao 3 Class'fication of literature reviewed 200 4 Split up of actual sample obtained for study 239 5 Values identified in the content of English 249 curriculum 6 Percentages of teachers' awareness of values in 256 the content 7 Data and percentages of teachers using different 257 levels of activities in standard V111 8 Data and percentages of teachers using different 260 levels of activities in standard IX g Data and percentages of teachers using different 262 levels of activities in standard X 10 Comparison of mean percentages of awareness 265 of values in the content between 'Ideal' teachers & 'Low' and 'Mediocre' teachers 11 Mean percentages of pupils' awareness of values 267 in the content for total sample and sub-samples 12 Mean percentages of pupils' awareness of values 268 in the content for different standards 13 Comparison of mean percentages of awareness 270 of values in the content between teachers and pupils 14 Comparison of mean percentages of awareness 271 of values in the content between boys and girls 15 Comparison of mean percentages of awareness 272 of values in the content between pupils of 'Ideal' teachers & 'Low' and 'Mediocre' teachers 16 Mean percentages of Moral Maturity and its four 273 components 17 Mean percentages of Moral Maturity and its 275 components for the sub-samples 18 Comparison of mean percentages of Moral 278 Maturity and its components between boys and girls 19 Comparison of mean percentages of Moral 280 Maturity and its components between pupils of 'Ideal' teachers and 'Low' and 'Mediocre' teachers A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page No. 1 The systems model of human behaviour 8 1 A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix No. Title Test of Awareness of Values in the Content of Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard VIII) Scoring Key to the Test of Awareness of Values in the Content of Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard VIII) Test of Awareness of Values in the Content of Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard IX) Scoring Key to the Test of Awareness of Values in the Content of Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard IX) Test of Awareness of Values in the Content of Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard X) Scoring Key to the Test of Awareness of Values in the Content of Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard X) Data Sheet on Teaching Activities for Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard VIII) Data Sheet on Teaching Activities for Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard IX) Data Sheet on Teaching Activities for Secondary School English Curriculum (Standard X) Moral Maturity Inventory Moral Maturity Inventory (English Version) Rc!sponse sheet of the Moral Maturity Inventory X Scoring Key to the Moral Maturity Inventory A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 Chapter I INTRODUCTION > Needandsip$caaace of the study > Speciafsignzjicance of the study Statement of thepro6lkrn > Gtlk of the study 9 Definition of b y t erms > 06jectives of the study > Netfiodolbgy > Scope and limitations of the study I N T R O D U C T I O N We are probably living in a society where there are more 'don'ts' rather than 'dos'. 'Do not smoke', 'Do not litter', 'Do not sound horn near hospitals', 'Do not use cell phones while driving', these along with a host of other 'don'ts' seem to permeate the entire public places. And negligence of these warnings invites punishment. This shows that we are all concerned with the welfare and peace of one another. But the most ridiculous part is that we have to compel ourselves to think of the welfare of our society, that too through punishments. We cannot think of a society, which claims to be civilized where legal codes dominate moral codes. In a civilized society we are supposed to live with concern for others, and longing for peace without any external influence. There we need not remind one another of the countless 'don'ts' formed with a view of welfare and ultimate peace of our society. History testifies that everything is subject to change. Man's needs, desires, ambitions, and aspirations are no exceptions. They also kept changing constantly, with the passage of time. Biological needs were predominant while he was not much more than a savage. When he became a social animal higher order needs like capability for CO-living;s ocial approval, etc. began to take roots in his mind. In the twenty first century it is quite amazing when one observes the number, range and variety of man's needs. The one 2 aspiration that has bcen in the minds of the primitive as well as the modern man is a life with pcacc and tranquility of mind. That is why we always pray for shanti or peace through the chanting of innumerable 'shantimantras' present in the Vedas and Upanishads. Peace plays its role at all levels: individual, family and society. We cannot cxpcct pc;icc in a society unlcss its mcmbcrs arc moral. Only thosc civilizations flourished which were firmly rooted in a system of values. Valucs are multi-dimensional. But all of them can be traced down to moral values. Tyagananda (2000) opines, "It is not difficult to understand why there is a tendency to rt:duce all values to moral ones. Moral values regulate human conduct at much deeper levels of our personality than most other values do. So moral values tend to take precedence over other values. Values in other spheres that fail to respect our basic uniqueness as human beings, our dignity and worth, find themselves in conflict with moral requirements" (p.28). He goes ahead to assert the dynamic nature of values. "But values are by no means static, permanent, unchangeable. We must have good reasons for abandoning a value or incorporating a new one in our system, but that process involves its own justification and careful reckoning. Of course, unlike our beliefs and attitudes, values are not chosen or abandoned casually, 3 because sonlcthillg very vital at stake here - the sell's own estimate of itself" (p.3 1) The importance of developing morality among the individuals has been asccrtaincd by a host of lcarncd pcoplc. Thcy again and again exhort us to maintain ultimate peace by holding values as dear as one's own life. But our morals are decaying day by day and the social equilibrium is getting disturbed. Virtues have been replaced by vices; corruption, moral cowardice, nepotism, hatred, parochialism, vandalism, irreverence to laws, culture and civilization etc. have become the order of the day. Cyber crimes are the latest addition. No one can escape the sufferings resulting from this disturbance. A thorough analysis of the situation reveals the vileness of present day education. It is very painful to note that it neither provides for the intellectual development nor tbr the e~notionald evelopment. Kothari Cominission (1964- 66) has remarked, "The destiny of India is being shaped in the classroom" (Report of the Education Com:nission, 1966). Even though different philosophers define education in different ways, they reach at the same conclusion that the ultimate aim of education should be the all-round development of the individual, development of an integrated personality and make him useful to himself and the society. That is why Gandhiji has rightly remarked that by education he meant the all-round drawing out of the best in 4 child and man, mind, body and spirit (Annamma, 1986). Thus the development of pc:rsonality becolncs the most important aim of education. . According to Munn (1965), personality is the, "most characteristic integration of an individual's structures and activities". Allport's (1961) definition of personality is an all-inclusive one: "Personality is the dynamic organization within the individual of those psycho-physical systems that determine his characteristic behaviour and thought". Both the hereditary and environmental factors influence the development of personality. The environmental factor includes the home, the school and the community in which the individual grows. Both these factors are equally important for an all-round development of the personality of the child. An integrated development of physical, mental, social and emotional aspects of personality is very essential for a healthy individual. The physical, physiological and psychological world within and around the individual will be always demanding something from him. Unless he is able to adjust and meet all these demands he will not be able to lead a happy and successfbl life. The social forces are dynamic. The main task of education is to develop in the child the ability to make adjustment with the changes that are constantly taking place in the environment. To achieve this adjustment one must develop a balanced and integrated personality. Only a balanced development of physical, mental, social, emotional, moral and spiritual aspects of the personality of the individual could achieve this. Every individual thrives for social acceptance and approval. The society judges an individual 'good' or 'bad' based on his character and conduct. It is the moral values he cherishes which decide whether his personality is socially acceptable or not. Lack of morals indicates a lopsided development of pc:rsonality. How valuable are moral values to life is pointed out 'by Dandapani (2002), "Our lives are brightened or darkened, enriched or impoverished by the kind of attitudes we bestow toward our fellow-human beings, and the Values we have imbibed and cherished. Among life's greatest blessings are LOIVE and HOPE and TRUST - to help us do the things we "should" as well as we "must". LOVE, like a smile, when it is given away can lighten a burden or brighten a day. HOPE, like a candle, whose comforting light i8sa guiding hand - a lamp in the night. TRUST, like faith, that with each day's dream, more joys will appear; more cares will be gone", (p. 35). Carr (1995) suggests, "Virtues are values". Others adopt terms merely because of their lay connotations or political effect. Bennett (1991) has argued, "The term 'values' may suggest that judgements of right and wrong, noble and base, just and unjust, are mere personal preferences that things are worthwhile only if and in so far as individuals happen to "value" them ...W e 6 need to reach for a new term. Because these issues are not matters of mere personal taste, let me propose that WC reconsider the enterprise now known as 'the tcaching of valucs'. Let me suggest that we relabel that enterprise as the effort to help form the character of the young." (p. 13 1). NEED AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Rao (1986) writes, "Since, society continues to exist though the individual perishes the social heritage needs to be preserved, protected and improved through education and training. How can we expect good education, harmony or peace in any society without its members being moral? It is always the acts of immorality that have sown the seeds of unhappiness, jealousy, hatred, enmity etc., in any human society. The Jirst and foremost requisite therefore for any society is that its members must be morar'. The Conference of European Ministers of Education (MINEDUROPE, 1988) prepared a set of guidelines with the co-operation of non-governmental organizations, for identiJication of values for the humanistic, cultural and international derlelopment of education. The importance of these guidelines is that they lay down a structural framework on the basis of which these fundamental values can be integrated into education. These guidelines are built upon the belief that consensus in relation to the assessment of values is to be achieved; tlnough in moral philosophy the debate amongst philosophers about identilication and nature of values is the central issue. These guidelines attempt to identifj certain core principles on which international society must bc built. 'fiicsc valucs arc: - ( l ) .self=-esteem,b oth personril rirtrt cuNurril(2) respect and tolerance for others as individuals and as members of ethnic/cultural groups ( 3 ) sense of belonging-all must have a secure physical, ernotiorzal and political locus within society (4) a sense of responsibility in relation to social, political, economic, cultural and environmental factors, ( 5 ) an appreciation of the importance of learning. These principles must go hand in hand with certain ethical qualities like openness, willingness to discuss and listen, an attitude of good will towards others, not insisting on one's own rights, ant1 (I spirit of decency. In the 44ths ession of the International Conference on Education held in 1995, a declaration was adopted which called upon the Director General of UNESCO to present to the General Conference, a 'fframework of action" that would permit the member States of UNESCO to integrate within a coherent policy, education for peace, human rights and democracy in the perspective sustainable development. The "Z~ztegrated Framework of Action" emphasized the development in every individual of the sense of universal values and types of behaviour on which a culture of peace can be predicated. It einphasizcd that erlucrrtiort must develop the ability to value freedom and tlte skills to meet its challenges; it must develop the ability to recognize and accept tlte values wliiclt exist in the diversity of individuals, genilers, people ant1 cultures and develop the ability to communicate, share and co-operate with otlters; it must develop the ability of non-violent conflict resolution and promote tlze development of inner peace in the minds of students so that they can establish_firmlyt he qualities of tolerance, compassion, sharing and caring; it must cultivate in citizens the ability to make informed choices; it must teach citizens to respect the cultural heritage, protect the environment, adopt methods of production and consun~ptionl eading to sirstainable c/evelopment with lzarmony between individuals and c~ollectivev alues and between immediate basic needs and long term interest. Finally, it must cultivate feelings of solidarity and equity at the national and international levels. The guidelines also indicate the strategies to achieve these aims and the lines of action in respect of the content, teaching materials and resources. (Lecture on Value Based Education by Hon'ble Justice Mr B.N.Srikrishna, on the foundation day of Sree Sankaracharya University of Sanskrit, Kalady, 1'' February 2003) He adds, "The necessity of restatement of the values and the urgent need for value based education is driven home if we look around and ponder on what is happening around. It is frightening and fkustrating to notice that students see educational institutions as a proving ground rather than as a training ground. Teachers and students spend most of their time trying to convince others that they are knowledgeable, but hardly spend their energy acquiring knowledge. Education must teach tolerance, discipline and humility-". . . Vidya dadati Vinayam". Discipline makes one acceptable in society and that leads to progress of the individual and all-round happiness. Unfortunately, in today's educational system, the moral, emotional, psychic and spiritual aspects of the student are wholly ignored, resulting in the student receiving inadequate and inco~npletee ducation. Despite intense work, and absorption of voluininous data, there is little development of the personality of the student. E:ducation is essentially a process of internal transformation. Virtuous character is the end product of the process of unfolding of human perfection within. When this is achieved, it is reflected in the conduct of the individual. It is only when education is value based that there is full development of 1he personality of the students. There is freedom from the negative factors that impede development of potential. That would be the ' Vidya' that lead:; to ' Vimukti'. We can hardly say honestly that the quality of education today is capable of leading into the heaven of freedom that Tagore sang of. That can come about only by v a l ~ eba sed education, which is the crying need of the day". Seetharam as available in web site, points out the objectives of moral/value education, "Value Education, as it is generally used, refers to a wide gamut of learning and activities ranging from training in physical health, mental hygiene, etiquette and manners, appropriate social behaviour, civic rights and duties to aesthetic and even religious training. To some, value education is simply a matter of developing appropriate behaviour and habits 10 involving inculcation of certain virtues and habits. In opposition to such a conception, it is pointed out that value education has an essentially cognitive component in it . ~ n dth at this should not be ignored. Actually the ability to make moral judg1:mcnt based on sound reasoning is a very important aim of value education and has to be deliberately cultivated. Moral devc:lopment of a child, according to some, results automatically from the social liie of the school. The child as a member of the group imbibes the attitudes, values and general behaviour of the group and continually tries to mould himself according to the group norm. Such adjustment to life constitutes his moral development. Value Education is a process of aiding the child in such adjustment. Such a view is contested on the ground that although children learn the rules of group living from the social life of the school, such learning does not constitute value education. For morality, it is pointed out, is not concerned so much with 'what is' as with 'what ought to be' and 'what ought to be done'. Value Education, according to one more view, is essentially a matter of educating the feelings and emotions. It is the 'training of the heart' and consists in developing the right feelings and emotions. It does not involve any cognitive abilities that can be trained. Like poetry, it is 'caught' rather than taught. It is essentially a matter of creating the right atmosphere, imitation and learning by example communion with nature or modelling oneself after an ideal. Such a view is countered by saying that mere imitation of a 'good' person and modelling oneself after an ideaI does not confer any morality on an individual. Morality is not a thing that simply 'radiates' from one person to another. Moral development includes both thinking morally and behaving morally. Moral thinking is a distinct type of thinking characterised by the exercise of rational choice. A moral person is not only a person who does the 'right' thing but also one who does the 'right' thing for the 'right' reason." (Synopsis of Guest Lecture, Concept and objectives of Value Education, Value Orientation in Teacher Education.) The fact that the environment influences the moral development of the individual gives us the notion that through education and training morality can be inculcated in the child. This is the basis for different thinkers and organizations to consider schools as the agents and the curriculum as the medium for inculcating values in the young and helping them to develop into moral individuals ready to take their place in the civilized society. As the school is a major part of the child's environment the investigator decided to pay his attention to school education. According to experts the language and literature curriculum should provide ample opportunities for inculcating moral values in pupils. In the present system of education the textbooks play a pivotal role. Mani (2002) remarks, "When there is doubt on concept clarity, children tend to refer the 12 text-book to a large extent. Sorncti~ncsi t has more effect than the teacher himself does in the classroom. Therefore, textbooks have a great role to play in fostering values. Value development concepts should be interwoven with the syllabi. Instead of teaching value development as a separate subject, the concept can be effectively integrated through textbooks. Text-book writers should bear in mind that they are trying to penetrate the young minds through their powerfill writing" (p.40). As the investigator is more interested in English education he decided to critically examine the English curriculum because, he wanted to ascertain whether the content area is effective enough to develop moral maturity in pupils or not. The teachers also have come under the investigator's scrutiny because no one can eliminate the role plsLyedb y them in inculcating values in the young generation. The Kerala Education Rules (KER) clearly states that moral instruction is an obligation on the part of the teachers. "The methods of teaching in schools should aim not merely at the imoarting of knowledge in an efficient manner, but also at inculcating desirable values and proper attitudes and Izabits of work in the students" (Harnsa, 1998 p.97). Furthermore "Moral instruction should form a definite programme in every school. It should be impressed upon the pupils that the components of a high chai-acter are trritIzf ulness and it on-violer~cei n thought, word and deed, fearlessness, self coiztrol and selflessness, respect to superiors and reverence to elders, tenderness to animals and compassion for the poor, humility and rlifigence, love of o ~ ~ eo'wsn country and pride in her past and faith in her future, saluting the National Flag and singing the National Anthem and habits of order and punctuality. The teachers should set the example of a high character before the eyes of the pupils under them and realize the great responsibility wlriclt rests upon them in regard to the moral training of those committed to their charge" (pp . 99-100). That is why Karajagi (2002) said, "We are at a transition time during which it is essential that the values arc: maintained and nurtured. Only an ideal teacher whose life itself is a beacon light of values can lead a society in the right direction. He has to demonstrate the essential values such as optimism, motivation, willingness to learn and teach, truth, non-violence, never to speak and think ill of others, creativity and ability to demonstrate unaddressed love'y, (p. 38). The present study was conducted on secondary school pupils. It is at this age that the demands of the society increase. At thisformal operational stage, as Piaget names it (Brown, 1979) the child should develop the ability to think morally,,the ability to do the right thing and also the ability to feel the right emotions. Me must be able to distinguish betwecn right and wrong, good and bad and facts and fancies. The child at this age, after undergoing almost seven years of schooling, is supposed to have attained moral maturity even though we are not providing formal moral education. Pupils must have the ability to make moral judgements, havc the moral attitude and they should have developed the capacity of inoral thinking. This theory is proved by Bull's studies (1964-67), which show that at the age of thirteen, 81% of his sample had developed conscience. The development of conscience is considered to be the ultimate in moral development. But a study by the investigator in 1994 brought out results to the contrary. This made him feel the need of a critical study of the curriculum for its effectiveness to develop moral maturity. English curriculu~ni n particular was considered because language education is the most suitable means of emotional training. SPECIAL SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY The investigator has been interested in Moral Education ever since he has got special training from Ramakrishna Institute of Moral and Spiritual Education, Mysore, in imparting values through different approaches. As he also considers th~:i ndirect or integrated approach to moral education more practicable in tht: present day educational scenario, he wanted to find out whether the instrument called curriculum has any potentiality to carry out its duty of transmitting values. The most suitable method for carrying out the present study is the 'critical study' because it involves very careful investigation and thorough analysis. Every aspect of the problem under consideration car1 be investigated by using this method. The critical study approach is the most suitable method for the identification of values contained 15 in the textbooks, the capability of the tead~ersto identiQ them, their expertise in transmitting the same to the pupils, and the level of attainment of moral maturity in respect of the pupils. STATEMENT OF THE SPECIFIC PROBLEM A critical study of the curriculum helps the investigator to identifjr the inherent moral values and to find out how far teachers are aware of them. It also helps to analyse the methods by which the teachers impart those moral values and how far those methods have been effective in helping the pupils in attaining moral maturity. The present problem is entitled as "A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS". DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS The key terms related to the present research attempt are defined as follows: 1. Critical study Deliberate, careful investigation and involving in adverse or censorious colnlnents or judgelllcnts about a particular area of knowledge (Oxford Encyclopedic English Dictionary, Hawkins & Allen, 1991) t 2. Effectiveness Effectiveness is defined by Dictionary of Education (Good, 1973) as "usc of a pl;ln or instruction or prcscntation which causes a desired change in learner's behaviour". 3. English Curriculum It refers to the total experiences provided to the pupils; to meet their learning needs wi?h special reference to English language and literature, thus attaining the aims and objectives of education. 4. Morality The dictionary of education defines morality as i) A system osf principles (or a code) of right and wrong conduct, actual or idealized as in democratic morality, Christian morality. ii) Conformity in behaviour to some principle of code of right or good conduct; as in expressions like "training for morality", (Good, 1973). "The word morality connotes a pursuit of the control and mastery over impulses and desires under the guidance and supervening inspira.tion of a standard of conduct formulated thought" (Seetharam, 1987). 5. Maturity The stage at which development has reached its maximum and growth has ceased; applied to cells, organs, functions - both physical and mental - and entire organism (Good, 1973). 6. Moral Maturity The term 'Moral Maturity' is used instead of 'Morality' to show that it is the point of maximum development of morality in the individual. The term Moral Maturity is defined as, "the stage of development when an individual or a group is able, through reasoned judgement of what is right and proper, to implement principles of ethical conduct in accordance with individual or group potentialities, and in line with cultural expectations; an end product of the sum total of numerous processes of acculturation", (Good, 1973) 7. Secondary Scliool Pupils Secondary School Pupils are those pupils studying in secondary school classes, namely VI[II, IX and X of Kerala State. VARIABLES The variables trea1:ed in the study are i) Effectiveness of English curriculum for secondary schools of Kerala to develop Moral Maturity i i ) Moral Maturity ol'sccondary school pupils Thrcc sub variables have been identified for the variable "Effectiveness of English curriculum for secondary schools of Kerala" that has been considered for the present study. They are: a) Potentiality of the content of the curriculum to develop values b) Potentiality of the teachers as evidenced by their awareness of values in the contc:nt c) Level of t1,ansaction as evidenced by the ability of teachers in using activities suitable for transacting the content for the development of moral maturity. 'Moral Malxrity of secondary school pupils' is studied as the Variable as a whole and along with the following four components as the sub variables. a) Moral awareness b) Moral thinking c) Moral action d) Moral attitude OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The following are the objectives of the present study: 19 1. '1'0 critically analyse thc contcnt of secondary school English curriculuin for Kerala for the identification of values inherent in it. 2. To critically analyse the level of teachers' awareness of the values inherent in the content of the secondary school English curriculum. 3. To cl-itically analyse the instructional activities used for transacting secondary :;chool English curriculu~nto develop 'Moral Maturity'. - 4. To identify the level of 'Moral Maturity' of secondary school pupils. 5 . To critically examine the effectiveness of secondary school English curriculum for Kerala to develop Moral Maturity in puiils. METHODOLOGY a) Design of the Study The studj'. aims at finding out the effectiveness of Secondary School English curriculum to develop moral maturity by a critical examination of the various data gathered. The data for the present study were collected by docuinent analysis of the Units of thc contcnt of the curriculum, and survey on teachers and pupils. The data were analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively to ascertain critical oxamination of them. b) Sanlple for the study The subjects sclccted for thc prescnt study were 116 secondary school English Teachers and 1,864 pupils. Thcre were 536 pupils (255 boys and 281 girls) from V111 standard, 965 pupils (523 boys and 442 girls) fiom IX standard and 363 pupils fiom X standard, which include 195 boys and 168 girls. The teachers as well as the pupils were drawn from Kannur and Kasaragod districts of Kerala, the majority from the former. The pupils were selected from those who were being taught by the teachers taken as a sample for the present study. For this purpose, simple random sampling technique was used. c) Technique and tools used for the study In the present study the investigator used the following technique and tools. i) Content analysis ii) Test of awareness of values in the content of secondary school English curriculum (for teachers) iii) Data sheet on teaching activities for secondary school English curriculum iv) Test of awareness of values in the content of secondary school English curriculum (for pupils) v) Moral Maturity Inventory The investigator in consultation with his supervising teacher prepared the first three tools. The fourth tool named, 'Moral Maturity Inventory' was prepared by him with the help of his supervising teacher in 1994, in connection with anothcr study on 'Moral Maturity'. Necessary modifications were made to this tool after consultation with experts. d) Procedure l) The investigator made a unit-by-unit analysis (document analysis) to identifL the value:; latent in the content area of secondary school English. All the three course books along with the supplementary readers prescribed for study in the VIII, IX, and X standards were subjected to analysis in this way. Experts in the field of education, especially Moral Education, ascertained its validity. 2) Based on the document analysis a 'Test of awareness of values in the content of secondary school English curriculum (for teachers)' was prepared by the investigator with the help of his supervising teacher. Separate tests were prepared for administration on the teachers handling English jn*11, IX, and X standards. This was administered on 116 English teachers of " secondary schools. This was meant for finding out if the teachers are capable of identifjring the values latent in the content. 3) A tool, namely 'Data sheet on teaching activities for secondary school English curriculum' was administered on the 116 English teachers selected 22 for the study, ,in order to find out whether they are providing suitable and adequate learning situiltions to the pupils for attaining moral maturity. 4) To ascertain the consistency of data given by the teachers, the investigator himself observed the lessons of all the secondary school English teachers who claimed to use activities suitable for transaction of values. 5) The 'Test of awareness of values in the content of secondary school English curriculum (for pupils)' was administered on the pupils who were being taught by the teachers taken as the subjects. 6) The 'Moral Maturity Inventory' was administered on the same 1,864 pupils on whom the other test was administered. This was to find out the level of attainment of Moral Maturity and its components, namely 'Moral Awareness', 'Moral Thinking', 'Moral Attitude', and 'Moral Action' of secondary school pupils. e) Techniques of analysis . The techniques used in the present study for the analysis of data collected are as follows: i) Document analysis of content critically for identiqing whether values for the age group theoretically are present, which are also judged by the experts 23 ii) Finding out of percentages of awareness of values in the content by teachers and pupils iii) Test of significance of differences in the mean percentages between comparable samples iv) Estimation of percentage of teachers using different teaching activities v) Estimation of percentages of Moral Maturity vi) Qualitative criticism SCOPE AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY The study was on a very sensitive issue, the issue of the development of our secondary school pupils into matured inoral beings out of their experiences with the content of the English curriculum. So the investigator had to be very carefbl in every step during the course of the present study. Scope of the study The content area of the English curriculum, which was one of the main variables has becn analysed unit-wise by the investigator and the values identified by him. have been judged and approved by experts. The values which were linked with other directly observable values and traceable from one to another wrere also identified and due importance given. The other variable, Moral Maturity, was treated with its four moral components so that 24 the investigator cc~ulda scertain that all aspects of the variable were considered for the study. The sizes of the samples were adequately large which allowed generalizations of findings of the study to be reliable. It was fixed in accordance with approved norms. The technique of sampling helped the investigator to avoid any bias or prejudice regarding the subjects of the study. The tools used were prepared specifically to serve the purpose of the study keeping in mind the objectives. They were made foolproof by all possible means that were feasible. The content validity, face validity and construct validity of the tools were assured. . It was a systematic and scientific procedure that the investigator followed to solve the problem under study. The most suitable method for this type of research attempt, the critical study method, was followed so as to deal with all facets of the problem. The statistical techniques used were also in accordance with prescribed theories. Limitations of the study Even though the investigator was careful enough to maximise the generalisability of the study the following limitations have crept in. i) The samples were taken mainly from only one district of Kerala. 2 5 This was in view of economy of time and money. As the secondary school pupils and tcachcrs of Kcrala in diffcrcnt districts follow the sainc content of the English curriculum it need not be considered as a major limitation. ii) Though the size of the sample in respect of pupils taken for study was vcry largc, thc sample that rcprcsented the secondary school English teachers of Kerala was not so large. Even though the number of teachers taken as sample was not large, it was more than adequate from the statistical point of view as it fell into the category of large :;ample. Not being unaware of these limitations, the study is expected to throw light on the merits as well as drawbacks, if any, as far as the value content of the English curric:ulum is concerned. It is hoped that the study will provide guidelines to the curriculum constructors when they modify the existing English curriculu~nt o meet the needs and challenges of the new generation whose morals are seemingly degrading. ORGANISATION OF THE REPORT The report of the study has been presented in five chapters. Chapter 1 which serves the purpose of introduction gives a brief description of why the problem was selected, its significance, statement of the problem, definition of 26 kcy terms, variables, methodology, and scope and limitations of the present study. Chapter I1 of the report deals with the theoretical bases of the variables in a detailed manner, which includes the definitions and dimensions of values and English curriculum. A major part of this chapter is exclusively for the survey of related studies. . Chapter 111 is organized in such a manner that it covers the methodology adopted for the present study which includes variables of the study, selection of sample, technique and tools employed for collection of data, procedures adopted for the collection of data, statistical techniques used, etc. Chapter IV of this report is set apart for analysis and interpretations. This includes detailed statistical analysis of data collected, and discussion and interpretations of the results. Chapter V, the final chapter, of this report includes summary of findings, conclusions and suggestions. The study in retrospect, restatement of the problem, major findings, its educational implications and suggestions for fbrther research constitute this chapter. A CRITICAL STUDY OF THE EFFECTIVENESS OF ENGLISH CURRICULUM FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS OF KERALA TO DEVELOP MORAL MATURITY AMONG THE LEARNERS ANILKUMAR, P.M. Thesis submitted for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION UNIVERSITY OF CALICUT 2005 Chapter 11 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE > llieoreticalperspective of the varia6bs > Survey of rehtedstud'zes > Outcome of the survey of literature > Concl ion REVIEW OF RELA'rEL) LITERATURE The review of Related Literature is an indispensable part of any kind of research as it provides a firm fulcrum for the present research attempt. Best and Kahn (1993) remark that since effective research is based upon past knowledge, this step helps to eliminate the duplication of what has already been done and provides usefbl hypotheses and helpful suggestion for significant investigation. This chapter is treated under the following sections. A. . THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE VARIABLES B. SURVEY OF RELATED STUDIES C. OUTCOME OF THE SURVEY OF LITERATURE D. CONCLUSION A. THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVE OF THE VARIABLES This section consists of two divisions as i) THE PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF VALUES ii) THE ENGLISH CURRICULUM Each of these divisions is treated in a detailed manner as follows: 2 8 i) THE PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL BASES OF VALIJES Thc discussion of thc above theme is done under different heads. The 'What' and 'Why' of Values Value educ.ation is becoming an increasingly popular topic in the fields of psychology and education. Media reports of increased crime, corruption, nepotism, parochialism, terrorism, student agitation, and lack of dynamism in the youth have ca~sedm any to declare a moral crisis in our nation. While not all of these social concerns are moral in nature, and most have complex origins, there is a growing trend towards linking the solutions to these and related social problems to the teaching of moral and social values in our schools. However, how far the schools or the teachers can contribute to the solutions to these problems itself is controversial and debatable. Indian culture is basically founded on Morality. From time immemorial the Indian Philosophers have been trying to inculcate values in the young generation. Etlt ics or moral plzilosophy provides the theoretical basis for morality. The subject of ethics is the theoretical basis for its application in the form of morality of practical life. It is a theoretical study, which deals with the ideal or standard or Rightness and Wrongness, the Good and Evil involved in conduct. The ancient system of education, namely the 'Gurukula system' concentrated on the development of the child as a social and moral being. The teachings of the Indian Philosophers are mainly in the form of Vedas, Upanishads and Puranas. These scriptures success~lly carried out the duty of training the young ones in morality. But the advancement in Science and Technology has made an adverse effect on the moral consciousness of people. They are becoming more and more materialistic. The sublime values which were considered as precious as one's own life earlier, are now substituted by money, power etc., and still we claim to live in a civilized world! Dr. S. Radhakrishnan opines, "Civilization is within ourselves, in our moral conceptions, religious ideals and social outlook. Technical efficiency has little to do with moral development" (Shaw, 1990, p.12). Arnold Toynbee asserts, "Civilizations are not destroyed by politicians or by wars or battles but they perish or die a natural death when people suffer from moral break-down. Civilizations perish because of moral bankruptcyw, (Shaw, 1990, p. 13) Indian ethics provides one, with ample opportunities to find out the different values to be preserved by any civilized society. Morality in ancient India was based on two concepts, the principle of 'dharma' and the doctrine of 'karma'. Ever1 though 'dharma' literally means 'what holds together', one can,not deny the fact that it prescribes a social and moral order in life. It contains all the three ethical principles of right, good and ought. For 3 0 practical purpose we cnn nefine 'dharma ' as 'that which is for the good of this universe'. Good and Evil stand for 'dharma' and 'adharma' respectively. Bhattacharya (1992) says, '...dharma is not a single attitude of the men. It includes several aspects of good spirit in human life. What are considered good and beneficial in human life come under the term 'dharma'. Thus it is a virtue and it is free from all evils and vices. Righteousness, truth, morality, performance of duty, observance of religious duty, to maintain universal canons of law, justice and equity are the component parts of this virtue" (p. 3 1). . According to Indian ethics 'dltarma' is only one among the four objectives of human pursuits - the rest being Artha, Kama and Moksha. Dharma and Moksha are considered to be the superior ones among these. The upanishads exhort us to attain Moksha by telling truth and by travelling on the path of Dharma. Artha and Kama are considered to be secular values, while Dharma and Moksha are held as spiritual values. The Purusharthas are considered to be personal values while truth (sathyam), love (sivam) and beauty (sundaram) are considered to be impersonal values. The Doctrine of Karma holds that moral actions, even as physical actions react on the agent whatever may be their origin-body, mind or word, what one sows one reaps. The qualities of ideal individuals are explained by the acharyas of ancient times. Bhartrihari in his "Nitisatakam" points out the different values to be possessed by an individual. Truth, purity of heart, goodness, sound learning, humility, control of senses, charity, hospitality, obedience to elders, valour and sympathy etc. are a few among them. According to him, to curtail the desires, to be forgiving to the faulty, to give up conceit, to dislike crime, to tell the truth, to walk on the right path, to serve the learned, to respect the honorable, to please even the enemies, to conceal one's merits, to be careful of fame, and to sympathize with the miserable, are the characteristic qualities of the good (Gopinath, 1989, p.78). The Srnriti.; are mines of wisdom, which highlight the moral qualities. They prescribe obligatory moral deeds. Minu, Yajnavalkya, Narada, Angiras, Brihaspati and ~rasas ta~adprae scribe the moral qualities such as truth, non- violence, self-control, cleanliness, clrarity, kindness, endurance, wisdom, control of the senses, moral earnestness, moral watchfulness etc., which are worth considering even in this century. They have transcended the ages. "Our Upanishads, the fountain-head of Indian Philosophy at its highest and best, place before mankind such lofty ideals as truthfulness, righteous living, purity in personal life, faith in oneselJ;s trength of body, manliness, love for others, compassion towards all beings, service of man and god, and 32 service of god in mu11 - looking upon lrim as the mangestation of god - as the aim of true education", (Ananyananda, 2000, p. 34). The Vedic values in education are described: Thirst for knowledge, Self-control, Concentration, Chastity, Truthfulness, Tapas (Austerity), A taste for exercises, Pure love, Love of Music, Prayer, Self-confidence, Wisdom (Gautamananda, 2000 pp. 43-50) Philosophers like Swami Vivekananda, and Mahatma Gandhi gave more importance to character training than anything else. In Gandhiji's opinion all knowledge is useless without a good character. According to him, "The end of all knowledge must be the building up of character". (Sharma, 1992, p. 194) Character building is the moral ideal of education. He considered Truth and Non-violence to be the supreme values to be followed by every individual. Kripalani says, "According to Gandhiji the essentials of moral law are truth and non-violence and the principles that flow out of them. Eleven of them enumerat~d are the following: truth, non-violence, non-stealing, chastity, non-possession, bread labour, control of the palate, fearlessness, tolerance (equal respect for all religions), swadeshi and removal of untouchabifity. Some of them are permanent and some apply to the conditions of life -nI ndia today" (Rao, 1986, p. 25). Vivekananda proposes an education by which character is formed, strength of mind ?S increased and the intellect is expanded. He points out that what wc want is lift building, man-making, character-making assimilation of ideas. Aurobindo considers harmony as the supreme value. The other values he wants us to cherish and develop are spirituality, divinity, transformation etc. His system of education aims at an ideal child, which is good tempered, truthful, patient, enduring,.p oised, courageous, cheerful, modest, generous, courteous, obedient,f air and honest, (Sharma, 1992, pp. 236-237). Annie Besant suggests that during the period of seven to fourteen years of age the education of the child should be directed to the development and training of the emotions, and thus to the building of character. Her theosophical education aims at developing in the child the following values, namely, control of emotions, sympathy to the suffering, sacrifice, discipline of body and mind, right thinking, right judgement etc. (Sharma, 1992, p. 25 1) The following two definitions provide examples of a normative view of character: 1 . "engaging in morally relevant conduct or words, or refraining from certain conduct or words" (Wynne & Walberg, 1984); 2. "a complex sct of relatively persistent qualities of the individual person, and generally has a positive connotation when used in discussions of moral education" (Pritchard, 1988). (Citation of both: Huitt, W. (2004). Moral and character development. Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA: Valdosta State In general, character, good or bad, is considered to be observable in one's conduct .(Walberg & Wynne, 1989). Thus, character is different.from values in that values are orientations or dispositions whereas character involves action 01- activation of knowledge and values. From this perspective, values are seen as one of the foundations for character. In the context of the model of human l~ehaviourp resented at this site (Huitt, 1996), values include both cognitive and affective components, but not necessarily conative or behavioural components. Character includes all four components. Scholarly debate on moral dcvelop~nent and character formation extends at least as far back as Aristotle's Nichomacean Ethics and Socrates' Meno and contirues through to modern times (Nucci, 1989). In the last several hundred years, character education has been seen as a primary hnction of educational institutions. For example, John Locke, 17th century English philosopher, advocated educi,.tion as education for character development. This theme was continued in the 19th century by English philosophers Johr~S tuart Mill (e.g., "dcvclopment of character is a solution to social problems ilnd a worthy educational ideal," Miller & Kim, 1988) and Herbert Spencer (e.g., "education has for its object the formation of character," Purpel & Ryan, 1976). American education has had a focus on character development from its inception. The American philosopher, John Dewey, an influential philosopher and educator of the early 20th century, saw moral education as central to the school's mission (Dewey, 1934). However, since the 1930's American education has increasingly turned away from character education as a primary focus (Power, Higgins & Kohlberg, 1989). This is in spite of the fact that both educators and the public believe character education to be an important aspect of schooling. Spears' (1973) survey of members of Phi Delta Kappa (an education honorary society) on goals of education showed the following ranking of the goals of public schools: 1. develop skills in reading, writing, speaking, and listening; 2. develop pride in work and feeling of self-worth; and 3. develop good character and self-respect. In terms of defining good character, educators stated that this should include developing: 1. moral responsibility and sound ethical and moral behaviour; 2. capacity for discipline; 3 6 3. a moral and ethical sense of the values, goals, and processes of a free society; 4. standards of personal character and ideas. Since the 1960's teacher education has downplayed the teacher's role as a transmitter of social and personal values and emphasized other areas such as teaching techniques, strategies, models, and skills. More and more the vision of a good teacher is as the good technician, the skilled craftsman, who has acquired those behavioural skills and strategies that the "effective teacher" research claims are related to achievement. However, the fact that "effective" is defined as the students' scores on standardized tests of basic skills, but without reference to higher-order intellectual processes or concern about the students' morals, is of concern to many parents and educators. Educational psychology, rather than philosophy and religion, has become the basis of teacher training (Ryan, 1989). In most cases, educational psychology focuses on the individual, separated from the social context. Additionally, modern education has been heavily influenced by the behavioural approach, which has proved adept at developing instructional methods that impact achievement as measured by standardized tests. In the opinion of most researchers in the area of character and moral development (e.g., Lickona, 1991 ; Nucci, 1989), additional emphasis must be placed on the philosophical "why" of education in addition to the technical "how." The two educational goals most desired by both the public and educators--academic competence and character development--are not mutually exclusive, but complementary (Wynne & Walberg, 1985). Competence allows character to be manifested in highest forms and vice versa. For example, Stallings (1978) found a positive impact of attempts to improve student achievement on independence, task persistence, cooperation, and question asking. ~tz ioni( 1984) and Ginsburg and Hanson (1986) reported that students who were self-disciplined or more religious, hard working, or valued learning, scored higher on achievement tests. Kagan (1981) and Wynne and Walberg (1985) argue that good character ought to be the more primary focus, as it is a goal in reach of more children than is high academic achievement and can result in less alienation from the school. Theories of Moral Development The major theories regarding Moral Development are discussed below. a) Jean Piaget's Theory Jean Piaget is among the first psychologists whose work remains directly relevant to contemporary theories of moral development. In his early writing, he focused specifically on the moral lives of children, studying the way children play games in order to learn more about children's beliefs about right and wrong. According to Piaget (1932), all development emerges from action; that is to say, individuals construct and reconstruct their knowledge of thc world as a rcsult of' interactions with the cnvironmcnt. Bascd on his observations of children's application of rules when playing, Piaget determined that nlorality, too, could be considered a developmental process. For example, Ben, a ten year old studied by Piaget, provided the following critique of a rule made-up 'by a child playing marbles: "it isn't a rule! It's a wrong rule because it's outside of the rules. A fair rule is one that is in the game". Ben believed in the absolute and intrinsic truth of the rules, characteristic of early moral reasoning. In contrast, Vua, aged thirteen, illustrates an understanding of the reasoning behind the application of rules, characteristic of later moral thinking. When asked to consider the fairness of a made-up rule compared to a traditional rule, Vua replied "It is just as fair because the marbles are far apartM(makingth e game equally difficult). In addition to examining children's understanding of rules about games, Piaget interviewed children regarding acts such as stealing and lying. When asked what a lie is, younger children consistently answered that they are "naughty words". When asked why they should not lie, younger children could rarely explain beyond the forbidden nature of the act: "because it is a naughty word". However, older children were able to explain, "Because it , isn't right", and "it wasn't true". Even older children indicated an awareness of intention as relevant to the meaning of an act: "A lie is when you deceive someone else. To make a mistake is when you make a mistake". From his observations, Piaget concluded that children begin in a "heteronomous" stage 3 9 of moral reasoning, characterized by a strict adherence to rules and duties, and obedience to authority. This hctcronomy results from two factors. The first factor is the young child's cognitive structure. According to Piaget, the thinking of young children is characterized by egocentrism. That is to say those young children are unable to simultaneously take into account their own view of things with the perspective of someone else. This egocentrism leads children to project their own thoughts and wishes onto others. It is also associated with the uni- directional view of rules and power associated with heteronomous moral thought, and various forms of "moral realism." Moral realism is associated with "objcctivc responsibility", which is valuing the letter of the law above the purpose of the law. This is why young children are more concerned about the outcomes of actions rather than the intentions of the person doing the act. Moral realism is also associated with the young child's belief in "immanent justice." This is the expectation that punishments automatically follow acts of wrongdoing. The second major contributor to heteronomous moral thinking in young children is their relative social relationship with adults. In the natural authority relationship between adults and children, power is handed down from above. The relative powerlessnes:; of young children, coupled with childhood egocentrism feeds into a heteronomous moral orientation. 40 Howevcr, through interactions with other children in which the group seeks a to play togethcr in a way all find fair, children find this strict heteronomous. adherence to rules sometimes problematic. As children consider thcse situations, they develop towards an "autonomous" stage of moral reasoning, characterized by the ability to consider rules critically, and selectively apply these rules based on a goal of mutual respect and cooperation. The ability to act from a sense of reciprocity and mutual respect is associated with a shift in the child's cognitive structure from egocentrism to perspective taking. Coordinating one's own perspective with that of others means that what are right needs to be based on solutions that meet the requirements of fair reciprocity. Thus, Piaget viewed moral development, as the result of interpersonal interactions through which individuals work out resolutions which all deem fair. Paradoxically, this autonomous view of morality as fairness is more compelling and leads to more consistent behaviour than the heteronomous orientation held by younger children. Piaget concluded from this work that schools should emphasize cooperative decision-making and problem solving, nurturing moral development by requiring students to work out common rules based on fairness. This is a direct rejection of sociologist Emile Durkheim's view of proper moral education. b) Emile Durkheim's theory Durkhcim (1925). similar to Piagct, bclicvcd that morality resulted from social interaction or immcrsion in a group. I-lowever, Durkheim believed moral dcvclop~ncntw as a natural rcsult of attachment to the group, an attachment that manifests itself in a respect for the symbols, rules, and authority of' that group. Piagct rejected this belief that children simply learn and internalize the norms for a group; he believed individuals define morality individually through their struggles to arrive at fair solutions. Given this view, Piaget suggested that a classroom teacher perform a difficult task: the educator must. p,-ovide students with opportunities for personal discovery through problem solving, rather than indoctrinating students with norms. c) Lawrence KOh lberg's theory Lawrence Kohlberg (1 969) modified and elaborated Piaget's work, and laid the groundwork for the current debate within psychology on moral development. Consistent with Piaget, he proposed that children form ways of thinking through their experiences, which include understandings of moral concepts such as justice, rights, equality and human welfare. Kohlberg followed the development of moral judgement beyond the ages studied by Piaget, and determined that the process of attaining moral maturi~yt ook longer and was more gradual than Piaget had proposed. 42 On the basis of his research, Kohlberg identified six stages of moral reasoning grouped into three inajor levels. Each level represented a hndamental shift in the social-moral perspective of the individual. At the first level, the preconventional level, a concrete, individual perspective characterizes a person's moral judgements. Within this level, a Stage I heteronomous orientation focuses on avoiding breaking rules that are backed by punishment, obedience for its own sake and avoiding the physical consequences of an action to persons and property. As in Piaget's framework, the reasoning of Stage I is characterized by ego-centrism and the inability to consider the perspectives of others. At Stage I1 there is the early emergence of moral reciprocity. The Stage I1 orientation focuses on the instrumental, pragmatic value of an action. Reciprocity is of the form, "you scratch my back and I'll scratch yours." The Golden Rule becomes, "If someone hits you, you hit them back." At Stage I1 one follows the rules only when it is to someone's immediate interests. What is right is what's fair in the sense of an equal exchange, a dial, and an agreement. At Stage I1 there is an understanding that everybody has hi:; (her) own interest to pursue and these conflicts, so that right is relative (in. the concrete individualist sense). 'Individuals at the conventional level of reasoning, however, have a basic understanding of conventional morality, and reason with an understanding that norms and conventions are necessary to uphold society. T h q tend to be self-identified with these rules, and uphold them consistently; viewing morality as acting in accordance with what society defines as right. Within this level, individuals at Stage I11 are aware of shared feelings, agreements, and c:xpectations, which take primacy over individual interests. Persons at Stage 111 dcline what is right in terms of what is expected by people close to one's self, and in terms of the stereotypic roles that define being good - etg., a good brother, mother, teacher. Being good means keeping mutual relationships, such as t r~st ,l oyalty, respect, and gratitude. The perspective is that of the local community or family. There is not as yet a consideration of the generalized social system. Stage IV marks the shift from defining what is right in terms of local norms and role expectations to defining right in terms of the laws and norms established by the larger social system. This is the "member of society" perspective in which one is moral by hlfilling the actual duties defining one's social responsibilities. One must obey the law except in extreme cases in which the law comes into conflict with other prescribed social duties. Obeying the law is seen as necessary in order to maintain the system of laws that protect everyone. Finally, the post conventional level is characterized by reasoning based on principles, using a "prior to society" perspective. These individuals reason based on the principles which underlie rules and norms, but reject a uniform application of a rule or norm. While two stages have been presented within the theory, only one, Stage V, has received substantial empirical support. Stage V1 remains as a theoretical endpoint, which rationally follows from the preceding five stages. In essence this last level of moral judgement entails reasoning rooted in the ethical fairness principles from which moral laws wo~ildb e devised. Laws are evaluated in terms of their coherence with basic principles of fairness rather than upheld simply on the basis of their place within an existing social order. Thus, there is an understanding that elements of morality such as regard for life and human welfare transcend particular cultures and societies and are to be upheld irrespective of other conventions or normative obligations. These stages (I-V) have been empirically supported by findings from longitudinal and cross-cultural research. The six stages of moral development as suggested by Kohlberg can be summarized so as to make them compact. They are: Stage I - Hetoro~lomousm orality Stage I1 - Naively egoistic orientation Stage I11 - Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationship and interpersonal confonnity Stage IV - Social systems and conscience stage V - Contractual legalistic orientation Stage V1 - Unive~.sale thical principles, or orientation towards the decisions of conscience and towards self-chosen ethical principles. (Huseri et al., 1985, pp. 26-42) 45 To develop and refine his theory, Kohlberg relied almost exclusively on one research instrument, the Moral Judgement Interview (MJI). This involves presenting participants with moral dilemmas in which two different principles are in conflict, .and recording their resolution as well as their justifications for their position. The following is a typical dilemma (known as the Heinz dilemma) from the actual MJIs: In Europe a woman was near death from cancer. There was one drug that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist was charging ten times what the drug cost to make. He paid $200 for the radium and charged $2,000 for a small dose of the drug. The sick woman and husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the money, but he could only get together about $1,000. He told the druggist his wife was dying, and asked him to sell it cheaper or to let him pay later. But the druggist said that he had discovered the drug and that he was going to make money from it. So Heinz got desperate and began to think about breaking into the man's store to steal the drug for his wife. For each answer to each dilemma (there are three dilemmas on each test), researchers code the participants reasoning into one of the six stages, using a standard list of answers. Kohlberg required extensive training for researchers on the MJI. The subjective coding scheme has led to some skepticism about the measure itself. As a result, Jarnes Rest developed the Defining Issues Test (DIT). This test includes six moral dile'mmas, all taken from the MJI, along with twelve questions for each 46 dilemma. The questions contain cxaniples of reasoning from each of the six stages, and participants are asked to rate on a scale of 1 to 5 how much they will takc thc issucs in thc statcmcnt into consideration. Thus, thc scorcs are no re quantitative, and less subjective. Rest has developed a developmental stage model using the DIT that is similar to Kohlberg's, but which allows for reasoning at multiple stages at one time. So for example, according to Rest, people may reason at stage IV for some problems, and stage V for others. While neither Kohlberg nor Rest's theories are widely accepted today, at least outside of' developmental psychology, they serve as good illustrations of the important points about rationalist views of moral psychology. First, moral reasoning is central. The types of reasoning define the stages themselves that pcople use to justifL moral decisions. People are consciously aware of this ,rea.soning, and can articulate it. In fact, the tests of moral reasoning (the MJI and the DIT) rely entirely on participants' articulations of their reasoning, and thus on their conscious awareness of that reasoning. Another important point, which I haven't yet mentioned, is the Kohlbergian view of the mechanisms underlying moral judgement. These mechanisms are not innate, but they are not learned through socialization either. Instead, they are offshoots of the cognitive abilities that people have at various stages of development. In other words, moral reasoning is a subtype of more general reasoning mechanisms, and comes about through the interaction of these ~nechanislnsa nd social contcxts and rulcs. Moral rcasoning is part of a larger practical rcasoning systcm. Kohlberg used his findings to reject traditional character education practices. These approaches are premised in the idea that virtues and vices are the basis to moral behaviour, or that moral character is comprised of a "bag of virtues", such as honesty, kindness, patience, strength, etc. According to the traditional approach, teachers are to teach these virtues through example and direct communication of convictions, by giving students an opportunity to practice these virtues, and by rewarding their expression. However, critiques of ;he traditional approach find flaws inherent in this model. This approach provides no guiding principle for defining what virtues are worthy of espousal, and wrongly assumes a community consensus on what are considered "positive values". In fact, teachers often end up arbitrarily imposing certain values depending upon their societal, cultural, and personal beliefs. In order to address this issue of ethical relativity, some have adopted the values-clwfication approach to moral education. This teaching practice is based on the assumption that there are no single, correct answers to ethical dilemmas, but that there is value in holding clear views and acting accordingly. In addition, there is a value of toleration of divergent views. It follows, then, that the teacher's role is one of discussion moderator, with the goal of teaching merely that people hold different values; the teacher does attempt to present her views as the "right" views. Kohlberg rcjcctcd tlic focus on values and virtues, not only due to the lack of consensus on what virtues *iret o be taught, but also because of the complex nature of practicing such virtues. For example, people often make different decision:; yet hold.the same basic moral values. Kohlberg believed a better approach tc affecting moral behaviour should focus on stages of moral development. These stages are critical; as they consider the way a person organizes their understanding of virtues, rules, and norms, and integrate these into a moral choice (Power, Higgins, & ICohlberg, 1989). In addition, he rejected the relati~isvt iewpoint in favour of the view that certain principles of justice and fairness represent the pinnacle of moral maturity, as he found that these basic moral principles are found in different cultures and subcultures around the world (Kohlberg & Turiel, 1971). The goal of moral education, it then follows, is to encourage individuals to develop to the next stage of moral reasoning. Initial educational efforts employing Kohlberg's theory were grounded in basic Piagetian assumptions of cognitive development. Development, in this model, is not merely the result of gaining Inore knowledge, but rather consists of a sequence of qualitative changes in the way an individual thinks. Within any stage of development, thought is organized according to the constraints of that stage. An individual then interacts with the environment according to their basic understandings of the environment. However, the child will at some point encounter information that does not fit into their worldview, forcing the 49 child to adjust thcir vicw to accolnlnodatc this ncw information. This process is called equilibration, and it is through equilibration that development occurs. Early moral development approaches to education, therefore, sought to force students to ponder contradiction inherent to their present level of moral reasoning. The most common tool for doing this was to present a "moral dilemma" and require students to determine and justify what course the actor in the dilemma should take. Through discussion, students should then be forced to face the contradictions present in any course of action not based on principles ofjustice or fairness. While Kohlberg appreciated the importance and value of such moral dilemma discussions, he held from very early on that moral education required more than individual reflection, but also needed to include experiences for students to operate as moral agents within a community. In this regard, Kohlberg reconciled some of the differences in orientation that existed between the theories of moral growth held by Piaget and Durkheim. In order to provide students with an optimal context within which to grow morally, ~ o h l b e r gan d his colleagues developed the "just community" schools approach towards promoting moral development (Power, Higgins, & Kohlberg, 1989). The basic premise of these schools is to enhance students' moral developmelit by offering them the chance to participate in a democratic community. Here. democracy rcfcr:; to more than simply casting a votc. It entails full participation of community members in arriving at consensual rather than "majority rules" decision-making. One primary feature of these schools is their rt:latively small size (often they are actually schools within schools), aimed e.t providing the students with a sense of belonging to a group, which is responsive to individual needs. The central institution of these schools is a comrr~unitym eeting in which issues related to life and discipline in the schools are discussed and de~nocraticallyd ecided, with an equal value placed on the voices of students and teachers. An underlying goal of these meetings is to establish collective norms, which express fairness for all members of the community. It is believed that by placing the responsibility of determining and enforcing rules on students, they will take prosocial behaviour more seriously. At the same time, this approach stems from the cognitive-developmentalist view that discussion of moral dilemmas can stimulate moral development. However, this is not to say that just community school simply leaves students to their own devices; teachers play a crucial leadership role in these discussions, promoting rules and norms, which have a concern for justice and community, and ultimately enforcing the rules. This role is not an easy one, as teachers must listen closely and understand a student's reasoning, in order to help the student to the next level of reasoning. This requires a delicate balance between letting the students make decisions, and advocating in a way, which 5 1 shows them the lilnits in their reasoning. A primary advantage to the Just Community approach is its cff'ectiveness in affecting students' actions, not just their reasoning. Students are, in effect, expected to "practice what they preach", by following the rules determined in community meetings. d) Elliot Turiel's theory In the early 1970s, longitudinal studies conducted by the Kohlberg research group began to reveal anomalies in the stage sequence. Researchers committed to the basic Kohlberg framework attempted to resolve those anomalies through adjustments in the stage descriptions. Other theorists, however, found that a comprehensive resolution to the anomalous data required substantial adjustments in the theory itself. One of the most productive lines of research to come out of that period has been the domain theory advanced by Elliot Turiel (1971) and his colleagues. This theory distinguishes morality and convention. Within domain theory a distinction is drawn between the child's developing concepts of morality, and other domains of social knowledge, such as social convention. According to domain theory, the child's concepts of morality and social convention emerge out of the child's attempts to account for qualitatively differing forms of social experience associated with these two classes o'f social events. Actions within the moral domain, such as unprovoked hitting of someone, have intrinsic effects (i.e., the harm that is 52 caused) on thc wclfarc of another person. Such intrinsic effects occur regardless of the nature of social rules that may or may not be in place regarding the action. Because of this, the core features of moral cognition are centered on considerations of the effects, which actions have upon the well being of persons. Morality is structured by concepts of ham, welfare, and fairness. In contrast, actions that are matters of social convention have no intrinsic interpersonal consequences. For example, there is nothing intrinsic to the forms of address we employ that makes calling a college teacher "professor" better or worse than calling the person Mr. or Ms., or simply using their given names. What makes one form of address better than another is the existence of socially agreed upon rules. These conventions, while arbitrary in the sense that they have no intrinsic status, are nonetheless important to the smooth functioning of any social group. Conventions provide a way for members of the group to coordinate their social exchanges through a set of agreed upon and predictable modes of conduct. Concepts of convention then are structured by the child's understandings of social organization. . These hypothesized distinctions have been sustained through studies over the past 20 years. These studies hake included interviews with children, adolescents and adults; observations of child-child and adult-child social interactions; cross-cultural studies; and longitudinal studies examining the changes in children's thinking, as they grow older. An example of the distinction between morality and convention is given in the following excerpt from an interview with a four-year-old girl regarding her perceptions of spontaneously oc:curring transgressions at her preschool. Moral Issue: Did you see what happened? Yes. They were playing and John hit him too hard. Is that something you are supposed to do or not supposed to do? Not so hard to hurt. Is there a rule about that? Yes. What is the rule? You're not to hit hard. What if there were no rules about hitting hard, would it be all right to do then? No. Why not? Because he couldget hurt and start to cry. Conventional Issue: Did you see what just happened? Yes. They were noisy. Is that something you are supposed to or not supposed to do? Not do. Is there a rule about that? Yes. We have to be quiet. What if there were no rules, would it be all right to do then? Yes. Why? Because there is no rule. Morality and convention, then, are distinct, parallel developmental frameworks, rather than a single system as thought of by Kohlberg. However, because all social events, including moral ones, take place within the context of the larger society, a person's reasoning about the right course of action in any given social situation may require the person to access and coordinate their understandings from more than one of these two social cognitive 54 frameworks. For. example, whet!ler people line up to buy movie theatre tickets is largely a mattcr of social conveniion. Anyone who has travelled outside of Northern Europc or North Amcrica can confirm the fact that lining up is not a shared social norm across cultures. Within the United States or England, for example, lining up is the conventional way in which turn taking is established. The act of turn taking has a moral consequence. It establishes a mechanism for sharing - an aspect of distributive justice. The act of breaking in line within the American or British context is more than merely a violation of convention. It is a violation of a basic set of rules that people hold to maintain fairness. How people coordinate the possible interactions that may arise between issues of morality and convention is a hnction of several factors including: the salience of the features of the act (what seems most important - the moral or conventional elements); and the developmental level of the person (adolescents for example view conventions as unimportant and arbitrary norms established by adult authority). It was Turiel's insight to recognize that what Kohlberg's theory attempts to account for within a single developmental framework is in fact the set of age-related efforts people make at different points in development to coordinate their social normative understandings from several different domains. Thus, domain theory posits a great deal more inconsistency in the judgements of individuals across contexts, and allows for a great deal more likelihood of morally (fairness and welfare) based decisions from younger and 55 less developed people than would he expected from within the traditional Kohlbcrg paradigm. Current works from within domain theory have sought to explore how the child's concepts of moral and conventional regulation relate to their developing understandings of personal prerogative and privacy. This work is exploring how'children develop their concepts of autonomy and its relation to social authority. This has led to a fruitfbl series of studies of adolescent-parent conflict with important implications for ways in which parents may contribute to the healthy development of youth. This work is also being extended into studies of how adolescents perceive the authority of teachers and school rules. The implications of domain theory for value education are several. First, the identification of a domain of moral cognition that is tied to the inherent features of human social interaction means that moral education may be grounded in universal concerns for fairness and human welfare, and is not limited to the particular conventions or norms of a given community or school district. By focusing on those universal features of human moral understanding, public schools may engage in fostering children's morality without being accused of promoting a particular religion, and without undercutting the hasic moral core 01 all major religious systems. Second; e(lucatio1la1r esearch froin within domain thcory has resulted in a set of recommendations for what is termed "domain appropriate" values 56 education. This iipproacll entails thc tcachcr's analysis and identification of the moral or conventional nature of social values issues to be employed in values lessons. Such an analysis contributes to the likelihood that the issues discussed are concordant with the domain of the values dimension they are intended to affect. A discussion of dress codes, for example, would constitute a poor basis for moral discussion, since mode of dress is primarily a matter of convention. Likewise, consideration of whether it is right to steal to help a person in need, would be a poor issue with which to generate a lesson intended to foster students' understandings of social conventions. A related function of the teacher would be to focus student activity (verbal or written) on the underlying features concordant with the domain of the issue. Thus, students dealing with a moral issue would be directed to focus on the underlying justice or human welfare considerations of the episode. With respect to conventions, thefocus of student activity would be on the role of social expectations and the social organizational finctions of such social norms. . On the basis of this kind of analysis teachers are also better enabled to lead students through consideration of more complex issues, which contain elements from inore than one domain. By being aware of the developmental changes that occur in students' comprehension of the role of social convention, and related changes in students understanding of what it means to be fair or considerate of the welfare of others, teachers are able to frame consideration of' complcx social issues in ways that will maximize the ability of students to comprehend and act upon the moral and social meaning of particular course:; of action. e) Carol Gilligan's theory A second major critique of Kohlberg's work was put forth by Carol Gilligan (1982). She suggested that Kohlberg's theories were biased against women, as only males were used in his studies. By listening to women's experiences, Gilligan offered that a morality of care could serve in the place of the morality of justice and rights espoused by Kohlberg. In her view, the morality of caring and responsibility is premised in nonviolence, while the morality of justice and rights is based on equality. Another way to look at these differences is to view these two moralities as providing two distinct injunctions - the injunction not to treat others unfairly (justice) and the injunction not to turn away from someone in need (care). She presents these moralities as distinct, although potentially connected. In her initial work, Gilligan emphasized the gender differences thought to be associated with these two orientations. The morality of care emphasizes interconnectedness and presumably emerges to a greater degree in girls owing to their early connection in identity fcrmation with their mothers. The morality of justice, on the other hand, is said to emerge within the context of coordinating the interactions of autonomous individuals. A moral orientation based on justice was proposed as more prevalent among boys because their attachment relations with the mother, and subsequent masculine identity formation entailed that boys separate from that relationship and individuate from the mother. For boys, this separation also heightens their awareness of the difference in power relations between themselves and the adult, and hence engenders an . intense set of concerns over inequalities. Girls, however, because of their continued attachment to their mothers, are not as keenly 'aware of such inequalities, and are, hence, less concerned with fairness as an issue. Further research has suggested, however, that moral reasoning does not follow the distinct gender lines, which Gilligan originally reported. The preponderance of evidence is that both males and females reason based on justice and care. While this gender debate is unsettled, Gilligan's work has contributed to an increased awareness that care is an integral component of moral reasoning. Educational approaches based on Gilligan's work have emphasized efforts to foster empathy and care responses in students. According to Piaget (1932), moral development takes place in the child through two phases, namely, Heteronomy and Autonomy. Heteronomy is the phase in which morality is imposed on the child from outside, mainly by the adults. The phase called autonomy represents moral maturity of the child when he is capable of making independent moral decisions, where morality stems from within himself. Piaget hrther points out that during the early years every child is controlled by the command of the adults, which gives rise 59 to moral realism in thc child. It is characterized by a sense of implicit obedicncc to thc adults, and thc child dcvclops an objective responsibility. But'when the child advances in age this objective responsibility gradually gives way to subjective responsibility. Thus, the attainment of a particular age helps the child to acquire the level of autonomy in moral development, if proper environment is given. Against Kohlberg? Over the years, researchers like Rest (2000) began to notice that some children, even at a very young age (e.g., ages in which they should be squarely within the first two Kohblergian stages) used justifications that spanned multiple stages. Turiel argued that this meant that a graduated stage model, even a loose one like Rest's, is insufficient. That is why he and others developed what they call the domain theory of moral reasoning, or what some are calling the ,racial interactionist view. Turiel argued that there is an indication that li-orn a young age, moral reasoning and nonmoral social reasoning are distinct, and thus utilize different mechanisms. Moral reasoning concerns justice and fairness beginning early in development (in Kohlberg's model justice and fairness do not appear until the last level), and children recognize that violations of moral rules have negative consequences even when the nlles are not explicitly stated. Also in contrast with Kohlberg, then, Turiel believes that the sense of justice and fairness that underlies children's moral reasoning is learned, primarily through social interactions and observations. [t is through social interaction that children learn the consequences of certain actions, and therefore recognize that those actions are wrong ever1 when therc are' no rules against them. While both Gilligan and Turiel diverge fi-om Kohlberg in some ways, the central themes remain the same. Their concepts of what morality is, and how moral judgement takes place, are still fi~mlyr ationalist. But things have been changing over the last decade or so. One might even say that outside of developmental psychology, rationalism is no longer the majority view. However, there are hybrid theories that contain sonle elements of rationalism, but with affect and intuition playing large roles as well. . f ) Norman J. Bull's theory Bull (1969) identifies four distinct stages of moral development; these are ,homy, Heteronomy, Socionomy and Autonomy. At the stage of h o m y the child is said to be amoral, as it has no capacity for moral judgement. The child's behaviour is controlled by his instincts and pleasure or pain as a result of natural consequences. If proper training is not given at this state, it will continue to be amoral. ~t the next stage, namely, Heteronomy, the adult through reward and punishment controls the child's behaviour and it is disciplined by artificial consequences. Bull is of the opinion that the seeds of autonomy are to be sown at this stage, which is strongest at the ages seven to 6 1 nine. Heteronomy is a stage of external control, which leads to a stage on external - interxlal control, namely, socionomy. During this stage social forces shape the child's moral judgcmcnt. In the last stage the child has a self- rule and this stage is thc summit in moral development. He imposes moral codes on himself by himself. This is the stage at which major aspect of conscience, Ego- ideal develops. g) James Blair's theory Blair (1995) a neuroscientist, has taken an interesting approach to moral psychology. I-Ie studied psychopaths. From this research, he has come to view moral reasoning as insufficient to account for the differences between psychopaths and normal individuals in moral judgement. In particular, psychopaths are unable to distinguish the moral from the conventional (they have other relevant deficits, but this is the most illustrative one), which most children can do around age three. Their deficits appear to lie in affect, rather than reasoning. Their emotional responses to moral violations are no different than their emotional responses to conventional ones. Blair argues that to account for this, we need an affective mechanism that directly influences moral judgement. Ile calls this rncchanism the Violence Inhibition Meellanism, which is dcsigned to cause an ernotional reaction to human suffering that inhibits aggression and, perhaps, promotes empathy. However, the Violence Inhibition Mechanism doesn't do it alone. There's still something like reasoning going on in what Blair calls "meaning analysis." Now, it's not clear from Blair's writing what, exactly, meaning analysis is, and it could be something more like the automatic, schematic processes involved in intuitionist theories, but from discussions of it, one gets the impression that it is more conscious and deliberate. It involves the interpretation of the situations in which the Violence Inhibition Mechanism is activated, and from what one can tell, Blair believes that this can be done consciously and deliberately, which means that his theory contains at least some elements of the rationalist school. h) Shaun Nichols' theory The second hybrid account comes from the experimental philosopher Nichols (2002). I-Ie has argued that Blair's Violence Inhibition Mechanism cannot explain Blair's data, and has produced data of his own to support his own account, in which disgust and other emotions play a key role. For example, in one experiment, he presented participants with three types of violations: moral (e.g., a person hitting another person), conventional (e.g., someone drinking soup from the bowl at a dinner party), and conventional but disgusting' (e.g., someone spitting in his drink and then drinking it). He argued that if afiect plays a key role in the moral-conventional distinction, then disgust-inducing conventional violations should resemble moral violations more than conventional violations. This is, in fact what he found. 63 As for moral violations, the disgust-inducing violations were rated as worse violations than the merely conventional, and participants said they would have been wrong cven if an authority figure said they were OK. According to Nichols, then, affect plays a central role in moral judgement. But affect doesn't do it alone. Moral reasoning is still central. Like Blair, and prctty much cvcry "cognitivc" account of inoral judgement (i.e., any account that's not by a neuroscientist or a social psychologist), things get pretty vague after the talk about affect. Nichols has explicitly argued against what he calls "t:mpirical rationalism", which encompasses the views of Kohlberg, Turie!, Gilligan, and the like, but it also requires the "understanding" of normative rules governing moral behaviour (and distinguishing the: moral from the disgust-inducing), and he even calls this understanding a "normative theory. " That sounds like it involves reasoning. In fact, since it is the theory-like knowledge view of moral reasoning that the intuitionists are rebelling against, calling it a "normative theory" seems pretty straightforward. He also uses the sorts of evidence that rationalists, but not intuitionists, would use in his experiments, asking people "why" if violations were bad. If moral reasoning isn't important, then moral reasoning data isn't important. Still, this is clearly different from strict rationalism. If affect is involved, and even guiding reasoning, then inoral reasoning is no longer the arbiter of moral decisions. That makes Nichols a hybrid theorist. Imparting Valuc!s through Education for Character Development Rao (1986) says, "The goal of moral education must be the development of i.hc cgo-ideal aspect of conscience. The individual with a developed ego-ideal invites criticism frorn others on his proposed decisions besides himself being self-critical" (p. 74). He hrther opines that the stage of autonomy in moral development is realized through the formation of the ego-ideal consisting of a change from ego-centred attitude to ego-ideal, involving three processes namely, imitation, suggestion and identification. Developing desirable values in children is the main objective of moral education. "A value is something which one considers worthy of possession", (Rao, 1986. p. -84). According to Karajagi (2002) "values are a set of desirable behaviour by following which it is good for the individual and also the society" (p. 36). Which values are to be imparted through education that will help the children to acquire desirable behaviour? What strategies and approaches are effective in this task? Campbell and Bond (1982) state there are four major questions to be addressed when focusing on character development: 1. what is good character; 2. what causes or prevents it; 3. how can it bc tncasurcd so that efforts at improvcrnent can have corrective feedback; and 4. how can it best be developed? As previously stated, good character is defined in terms of one's actions. Character development traditionally has focused on those traits or values appropriate for the industrial age such as obedience to authority, work ethic, working in group under supervision, etc. However, the modern education must promote character based on values appropriate for the information age: truthfulness, honesty, integrity, individual responsibility, humility, wisdom, justice, steadfastness, dependability, etc. In terms of what influences character development, Campbell and Bond (1982) propose the following as major factors in the moral development and behaviour of youth. l. heredity 2. early childhood experience 3. modelling by important adults and older youth 4. peer influence 5. the general physical and social environment 6 . the communications media 7. what is tacsght in the schools and other institutions 8. specific situations and roles tltat elicit corresponding behaviour. The:.e sources of' influence are listed in approximate order of least tractable to most tractable in order to suggest why we often seek solutions to social problems through schools. It is important to realize that while schools do and should play a role in the development of character, families, communities, and society in general also have an important influence (Huitt, 1999, retrieved from wcb site). Some scholars believe that moral education should pave way for acquisition of a f'ew broad general principles of morality, while some others suggest the development of certain specific traits and attitudes in the child. Some others are of the opinion that moral education should be based on human values as was done traditionally but with a modified set of values appropriate to suit the needs of modzrn life. Most of the scholars interested in the field of value education consider values not indiv:.dually, but as groups. They classify values according to convcniencc - alisolute values, material values, human values, utilitarian values, cultural values etc. Nazereth rim and Maria Waples (1978) categorize the moral values to be imbibed by the children into three. These are Personal values, Neighbour[y valr~es,a nd Community vlilues. They contain sixteen, eleven and fourteen components, respectively. They are: Personal values: Clcanlincss, Dignity o l labour, Diligence, Punctuality, Honesty, Nature appreciation, Victory in suffering, Fortitude, Courage, Maturity, Self-reliance, Ambition, Excellence, Hope, Research and Evaluatioc.. Neighbourly values: Dutifulness, Patience, Courtesy, Thrift, Magnanimity, Sportsmanliness, Loyalty, Tolerance, Freedom, Determination, Gratitude. Community values: Love, Dialogue, Brothsrhood, Forgiveness, Repentance, Sharing, Service, Team spirit, Responsibility, Accountability, Sympathy, Hospitality, Justice, No~violence. Narain (1987) considers the Preamble to the Indian Constitution as the guiding star in fixing the values. He opines, "As one comes to answer the question what values are to be imparted through education, one could start with the position that Preamble to the Indian Constitution can be treated as the main guidc. 'Though it can be argued that there is not national consensus about values in India, few would deny that the Preamble to the Indian Constitution by and large, is acceptable to all and the quarrel here is more on the issue of implementation of the objectives indicated there than on what it postulates. Having taken this position, it is also to be recognized that the enunciation of' values has to go beyond nation21 boundaries and, fbrthermore, one has to talk of secular and, therefore, generally of accepted values. One 68 could, therefore, begin with a tentative classification of values in terms of global, national, societal and individual values, acknowledging at the same the .fact that thcre is a wcb of inter-relationships and even overlap running through all of them."(pp. 106- 107) Arulandram (1991) classified values under two major categories- interpersonal, and intrapersonal. According to Nayar and Khader (1992) the values belong to only five categories, i.e. Personal, Social, Moral, Aesthetic, and Spiritual. According to Sharma, J.N. (1998) the classification of values can be done on the basis of their areas of activities. He classifies values as: a) Aestlzetic Values: Love for fine arts, dancing, painting, music and love for symmetry and beauty in Nature, rhythm in poetry, etc. come under this. b) Spiritual Values: Here emphasis is on the soul or the spirit. c) Moral or Etlzical Values: Values relating to the code of conduct, honesty, integrity, discipline, self-control, self-reliance, inquiry into good, the bad and ugly aspects of human behaviour, code of conduct based on logical reasoning, etc. come under this category. (I) Social Values: Concerning the responsibilities and the contribution of the individual towards the society and its well-being, freedom, socialism, 69 secularis~ii, dernocracy, national integration, international understanding, democratic citizenship, equality, social justice, peace, inner harmony, fellow- feeling, unity in the midst of diversities, civic sense, citizenship responsibility, comradeship and co-operation, participation in community activities, etc. are classified under this head. Devatma's value based education identifies and classifies values as, (1) Self-oriented (2) Family-oriented, and (3) Society-oriented, (Arora, 19 99). For Singh (1999) values are of only two types: intrinsic and extrinsic. Truth and beauty are intrinsic values, whereas values that are means to an end are extrinsic. He speaks of positive and negative values. He condemns negative values and upholds that courage, honesty, integrity, benevolence, love, tenderness, charity, etc., that every civilized society aspires for, are positive values,. . In the opiilion of Gupta (2000) the values can be categorized into ten groups. They arc:: (1) Academic Values (2) Moral Values ( 3 ) Socio-political Values (4) Global Values (5) Environmental Values (6) Cultural Values (7 ) Traditional Values (8) Functional Values (9) Idealised Values, and (10 ) Behavioural' Values. Prahallada (2000) classifies values into the following eight categories: ( l ) Spiritual values (2) Material Values (3) Intellectual Values (4) Social Values ( 5 ) Mortrl V(11ites (6 ) I'olitical Values (7 ) Economic Values, and (8) Cultural Valires. He classifies Values in another way also. Here the values are classified as: (1) Biologicnl Values (2) Intrinsic Values ( 3 ) Instrumental Values ( 4 ) Healtlt Vtrlrres ( 5 ) Recreational Values (6) Aesthetic Values, and ( 7 )S piritual Valri es. For Maikhuri and Shah (2005) Values belong to three categories. They classifjl Values a:: Universal Values, Cultural Values, and Individual Values. Universal values arise out of self-introspection. These values can be experienced as life, brotherhood, compassion, love, joy, service, truth, bliss and eternity. Cultural values may also be called Social Values. These are concerned with right and wrong, good and bad, customs and behaviour. They serve the purpose of maintaining social or.der. Cultural values are reflected in social institutions, language, social hierarchy, ethics, law, education, economics, philosophy and aesthetics. Individual values may be called our private principles. They are the consequence of an individual's heredity and experience. People in one's surroundings such as parents, teachers and one's peer group shape individual values. Individual values are manifested in individual goals, ambitions, vows, relationships, commitments and personal National Clouncil of Educational Research and Training has listed 84 Social, Moral and Spiritual values in Education. (Documents on Social, Moral and Spiritual Values in Education, 1979). They are presented in table 1. 'I'ABLE l The 84 Values suggested by NCERT 0 1. Abstinence 3 1. Honesty 59. Social justice 02. Appreciation of 32. Helpfulness 60. Self-discipline cultural values of 33. Humanism 6 1. Self-help others 34. Hygienic living 62. Self-respect 03. Anti-untouchability 35. Initiative 63. Self-confidence 04. Citizenship 36. Integrity 64. Self-support 05. Consideration for 37. Justice 65. Self-study others 38. Kindness 66. Self-reliance 06. Concern for others 39. Kindness to 67. Self-control 07. Co-operation animals 68. Self-restraint 08. Cleanliness 40. Loyalty to duty 69. Social service 09. Compassion 4 1. Leadership 70. Solidarity of mankind 10. Common cause 42. National unity 71. Sense of social 11 . Common good 43. National- responsibility 12. Courage c ~ n ~ c i o u ~ n e ~ ~72 . Sense of discrimination 13. Courtesy 44. Non-violence between good and bad 14. Curiosity 45. National 73. Socialism 15. Democratic decision integration 74. Sympathy making . 46. Obedience 75. Secularism and respect 16. Devotion 47. Peace for all religions 17. Dignity of the 48. Proper 76. Simple living individual utilization of 77. Spirit of enquiry 18. Dignity of manual time 78. Team work work 49. Punctuality 79. Team spirit 19. Duty 50. Patriotism 80. Truthhlness 20. Discipline 5 1. Purity 8 1. Tolerance 2 1. Endurance 52. Quest for 82. Universal truth 22. Equality knowledge 83. Universal love 23. Friendship 53. Resourccf~~lness 84. Value for national and 24. Faithfulness 54. Regularity civic property 25. Fellow-feeling 55. Respect for 26. Freedom others 27. Forward look 56. Reverence for 28. Good manners old age 29. Gentlemanliness . 57. Sincerity 30. Gratitude 58. Simple living 72 The report of thc National Institutc of Educational Research, Tokyo (1980) identifies valucs considered for moral education in Asian countries. At the elementary education stage they are good manners, orderliness, punctuality, discipline, piety, cleanliness, co-operation, honesty, kindness etc. At the secondary school stage the values include patriotism, dignity of labour, justice, human brotherhood, dignity of the individual democratic spirit, understantling of other religions, international understanding, ability to make moral judgement etc. John Wilson and Williarn Kay think that the objectives of moral education should be in terms of moral principles, moral traits, moral attitudes etc. rather than in terms of values. Wilson (1 967) suggests 5 moral components. They are, I . A consideration for others (includes virtues like kindness, sympathy, altruism, courtesy, co-operation etc.) 2. An awareriess of feelings ofone's own and in others (includes virtues SUCIZ as rntrgr~crlitm ity, nobility, altrrrism etc.) 3. Ability to collect thin (includes reasoning, patience, endurance etc.) 4. Ability to take decision (consists of justice, temperance, wisdom etc.) 5. Will to rlct ort the decision (consist of courage, dutifulness, responsibility etc.) Kay (1975) considers the capacities of a nora ally mature person. According to him, onc should have the capacities to make the right moral judgement, to postporre grnt~jicationo f desire, to treat other human beings with dignity, to be flexible in making moral judgements, and to be creative and dynamic in moral decisions. These are called by him, 'the Primary ~ o r * nTlr nits '. He also suggests that a morally sound individual must possess the four Primary Moral Attitudes, namely Autonomy, Rationality, Altruism and Responsibility. Rao (1986, p. 101) lists a few values to be included in the curriculum for helping in.t h.2 moral development of the child. These are presented in table 2. TABLE 2 Details of Values to be included in the Curriculum as suggested by Rao Manners and habits Virtues (Other Regarding) Virtues (Indispensable or Ought) Moral CapacitiesIAbilities l. Posture l . Kindness Honesty 1. Capacity for: Sitting 2. Sympathy Sincerity . (a) An awareness of feelings in one's ownmd in others Standing 3. Friendliness Faithhlness (b) Owning responsibility for zoodhad action< Running 4. Courtesy Obedience (c) Moral thinking Walking 5. Co-operation Respect for othersMumility (d) Being rational in moral decisions 6. Helping nature Duty and Responsibility (e) Being creative and dynamic in moral decisions 2. Respect for elders 7. Hospitality Dignity of labour (f) Moral autonomy 3. Healthy.habits 8. Charity Gratitude (g) Acting with determination (a) eating 9. Non-Violence Democratic spirit (h) Resolving moral conflicts drinking 10. Service Truth (I) A sense of humour sleeping 11 . Impartiality Love 2. Possessing scientific temper (b) reading 12. Justice Beauty 3. Ability to strive for national integration, harmony and peace playing 13. Benevolence Loyalty 4. Ability to strive for world citizenship, harmony and peace recreation (Magnanimity) Freedom 5. Appreciation for art, music, good work beauty, culture. etc. leisure time 14. Nobility Tolerance pursuits 15. Brotherhood Self-reliance (C) punctuality (Family, State, National, Patriotism International levels) Equanimity of mind 5. Discipline, etc. 16. Temperance Courage 17. Altruism, etc. Fortitude Wisdom, etc. Rao suggests that the Moral CapacitieslAbilities listed are to be stressed at the Secondary School Stage. Other virtues are to be introduced in the lower classes and further reinforced during this stage. 75 A guidebook of "Living Values" prepared by the 'Brahma Kumaris' World Spiritual University articulates twelve value statements addressed to the universal aspects of spiritual and moral values as the basis for living one's life. 'Thcsc covcr both spiritual and secular values. These values are: co-operation, freedom, happiness, honesty, humility, love, peace, respect, responsibility, simplicity, tolerance and unity. The guidelines gave structure, theory and practice. The Vishwa Seva Educational Trust (V-SET) considers values as belonging to two categories, individual Oersonal) values and social (community) values. According to this trust individual values are not to be sidelined, but social values are to be given more importance. V-Set initially focuses on the following social values: l) Love and compassion: Love is the feeling of oneness with others. Compassion is being sensitive to the pain and suffering to others. 2) Sharing and generosity: It is the willingness to share what one has with others, and doing so, just for the joy of it. 3) Politeness and courtesy: Politeness is the expression of refined manners and behaviour in the society whereas courtesy is gesture of civility, reverence or respect. 76 4) Gratitude: Gratitude is the warm and friendly feeling one has to a benefactor and the free' and frank expression of indebtedness and thankfulness. 5) Duty and responsibility towards society: Duty is what one is bound or obliged to perform for the benefit of the society. Responsibility is being accountable to.what one has to willingly do, or what one has not performed. 6) Tolerance and patience: Tolerance is the capacity of endurance of offensive persons and adverse opinions and situations. Patience is the quality of being able to calmly endure. 7) Ready-to-serve attitude: Being aware that the needs of others are as important as on& own and the readiness to do whatever one can to help others. 8) Team spirit rznd sportiveness: Team spirit is doing things jointly for the common good, snd not for protecting one's own talents for acclamation. Sportiveness is Ihe ability to rejoice over the success of others and remain humble when one becomes victorious. 9) Non-violence: Non-violence is not to hurt anybody in thought, word or deed and do everything beneficial to others. 10) Repentance: Rcpentancc is a sinccre feeling of sorrow or regret for having done something wrong and the firm resolution not to repeat such mistakes or misdeeds in future. Repentance has a great purifying effect. 11) Forgive and forget: Forgiving is the capacity of patiently bearing the insults, adverse comments or actions of others without the slightest thought of revenge or feeling of hatred. To forget is to ignore such incidents, be friendly with, and love the person who has done wrong. Who is to blame is not important, only how to set the situation right. 12) Patriotism and sacrifice: The unswerving faith in the unity and prosperity of on1:'s Motherland and the readiness to give up anything and everything for her welfare. 13) Love ji)r nature untl environment protection: The thoughts and actions for the welfare and security of all living and non-living beingslobjects in nature and the implementation of measures for avoiding pollution and destruction. 14) Universal love: The ardent feeling of love for everyone and everything in the universe and the commitment towards the well-being and prosperity of all. Programmes and Approaches to Value Education 'I'hcrc arc a varicty OS altcrnativcs to dealing with moral and character education in the schools (Watkins, 1976). First, we can ignore it completely which assumes the issue is outside the bounds of proper curriculum. The interest by professional organizations and the public suggests that this view is inappropriate. .Second, we can take a "values neutral" stance and provide opportunities for students to clarifL and defend their own values without making recommendations or advocating a particular viewpoint. This is the position taken by the advocates of the values clarification movement (Kirschenbaum & Simon, 1973; Raths, Harmin & Simon, 1978; Simon, Howe & Kirschenbaum, 1972) and assumes that in important ways no values or character traits are more valid than others. However, to the extent that certain values or character traits are more likely to lead to socially desired outcomes, it would seem inappropriate to not identifjr these as "better" values. This is not to say that the techniques used in values clarification have no merit, but that when educators and the public have developed a consensus about the worth of certain values, it seems entirely appropriate to teach those to students. A third approach is t'o teach students a specific process to follow when making decisions and putting these into action. This is the approach of the analysis view used in values cducation (Ennis, 1969; Metcalf, 1971) and assumes moral and character decisions are made rationally. Another cognitive& oriented approach is to engage students in discussions of relevant moral issues with the expectation that students who hear their peers discuss the issue from a higher level will gravitate to that position. This position is expounded in the: moral development approach of Lawrence Kohlberg whose theory was based on the cognitive development theory of Jean Piaget (Hersh, Paolitto & Reinier, 1977). While the techniques used in both of these approaches have been shown to be effixtive in changing thinking, there is scant evidence to support the belief that changing thinking will automatically lead to a change in behaviour. And it is impact on behaviour that distinguishes values education from character education. A fifth' approach is to teach students a given set of values and accompanying appropriate actions. This is the position taken by the inculcation approach to values clarification (Georgia Department of Education, 1997; Wynne, 1989; Wynne & Ryan, 1992; Wynne & Walberg, 1984). This approach assumes a set of absolute values agreed upon by society that are unchanging and that be applied equally appropriately in all situations. Huitt's (1995) analysis of the rapid change in society over the last hundred years, accelerating at an even more rapid pace today, suggests this approach alone will not lead to desired outcomes in character development. A final approach is to use the inculcation, values education, analysis, and moral development approaches described above when and where 80 appropriate and then to have students put their thoughts and feelings into action in a variety of social actions as suggested in the action learning ( ~ i t o r n ,1 996; Gauld, 1993; Solomon et al., 1992) or service learning approaches. This combination of approaches is much more likely to impact the two important aspects of character not included in values education-- volition and action. From the perspective of a systems view, which is most compatible with the action learning and service learning approaches to character education, we need to define character development in terms of the three components of mind: (cognition, affect, volition) and the ~omponenot f behaviour as depicted in the systems model of human belzaviour (Huitt, 1996, from web site). This model is presented in figure 1. Figure 1: The Systems Model of human behaviour The cognitive component of character consists of both a knowledge base of right .and wrong as well as the rational and creative processes necessary to work with that knowledge base to make sound moral decisions. There is a related value system that defines what the individual holds in high esteem or to which he or she is attached. These are the criteria that students use to make moral or ethical judgements. Students learn to value what is in their knowledge base; thcy will also lnorc deeply esteem what they critically and creatively think about. These two components influence what students are willing to commit to, what they are willing to set goals for, what they are willing to plan for and put energy towards accomplishing. As students make these comrriitments and plans, it adds to their knowledge base and strengthens their thinking skills and values. These three components then influence the final component, overt behaviour. This behaviour has two aspects: personal virtues such as being courageous and self-disciplined and social virtues such as being compassionate, courteous, and trustworthy. As students reflect on their behaviour, it adds to the knowledge base, strengthens their thinking skills, and impacts their values. Of course, behaviour can also be directly influenced through the application of consequences as described by operant conditioning tlteory and through observation and modelling as described by social learning tlteory. The basic principle of this model is that much of the knowledge and values that students hold are implicit and have been obtained though observation, modelling, and the application of consequences. As important as it is to impact overt moral behaviour, it is equally important to help students make explicit one's own knowledge base, value system, and the process of comniitting and planning so as to make that behaviour more intentional. This inulti-faceted view of character development is more similar to Bandura's (1986) social cognition theory with its emphasis on reciprocal 83 determinism than it is to behavioural, cognitive, or humanistic view, each of which is more likely to focus on one component to the detriment of the others. In assisting studcnts to dcvclop thcir morals and character, we should acknowledge that these components come into play within a rapidly changing context and therefore, we cannot teach our students all the specific knowledge, values, or behaviours that will lead to success in all aspects of their lives. We must therefore acknowledge that some values are relative and teach students tc develop their own views accordingly. At the same time, we must acknowledge that there are some absolutes with respect to morality and character as accepted by commonalities among members of specific communities, miljor world religions, and moral philosophers. We, therefore, have an obligation to teach these in the family, in our religious organizations, and to support this effort in our communities. Moral and character development is integral to the development of self (Ashton & Huitt, 1980), and is as much the responsibility of early caregivers as it is of later educators. Nucci (1989) showed that "children's moral understandings were independent of specific religious concepts" and that both secular and religious children focus "on the same set of fbndarnental interpersonal issues: those pertaining to justice and compassion" (p. 195). In sum, as parents, educators, affiliates of religious organizations, and community members, we have an obligation to provide young people with training appropriate to their age level that would assist them in holding to the absolutes that are commorl across philosophies and the scriptures of the major rcligious traditions, while at the same time helping them clz.ri@a nd defend their own acquired values. Any ftanlework for impacting moral and character development is arbitrary unless ~ti s bascd on solnc philcsophicai foundation. Since no current approach to moral education is consisient with all philosophies and meta- ethical theories, educators must first decide these and then develop curriculum (Watkins, 1976). Unfortunately, a series of studies by Hartshorne and colleagues (1928, 1929, and 1930) showed that particular techniques of character training, such as in-class discussion, or even practicing helping activities, bore little or no significant relationship to pupil's later patterns of moral conduct. However, a review of research by Wynne (1989) reports that the quality of relationships among faculty (and between the faculty and adults in authority) i$ a major factor in thc developinent of student character. An atmosphere of adult harmony is vitally important. According to Wynne, the characteristics of schools effectively assisting pupil character development are: 1. directed by adults who exercise their authority toward faculty and students in a firm, sensitive, and imaginative manner, and who are committed to both academics and pupil character development; 2. staffed by dedicated faculty who make vigorous demands on pupils and each other; 85 3. structurcd so that pupils arc surrounded by a variety of opportunities for them to practice helping (prosocial) conduct; 4. inanagcd to provide pupils--both individually and collectively--with many fonns of recognition for good conduct; 5. oriented toward maintaining systems of symbols, slogans, ceremonies, and songs that heighten pupils' collective identities; 6. dedicated to maintaining pupil discipline, via clear, widely disseminated discipline codes that are vigorously enforced and backed up with vi.tal consequences; 7. comrnittet,i to academic instruction and assigned pupils significant homeworlc and otherwise stressed appropriate academic rigor; 8. sensitive to the need to develop collective pupil loyalties to particular classes, clubs, athletic groups, and other sub entities in the school; 9. sympathetic to the values of the external adult society, and perceive it as largely supportive and concerned with the problems of the young; 10. always .able to use more money to improve their programmes, but , rarely regard lack of money as an excuse for serious programme deficiencies; 86 l l . open to enlisting the help, counsel, and support of parents and other external adults, but willing to propose important constructive changcs in the face of (sometimes) ill-informed parent resistance; 12. disposed to define "good character" in relatively immediate and traditional terms. Three exemplary programmes for value education i) Child Development Project: The Child Development Project (CDP) is designed to help teachers and parents enhance children's "prosocial" behaviours and attitudes with a programme shaped by three general propositions (Watson, et al., 1989; Solomon, et al., 1992). 1. adults plqi an active and important role in shaping the development of children's character; . 2. character develops fi-om within the child on the basis of the child's own thinking and experiences; and 3. given an adequate family environment, children will be disposed to be concerned about others as well as themselves. The interventions are designed to influence three different but interrelated systems--affective, cognitive, and behavioural. The CDP teaches relevant prosocial values (specifically fairness, consideration, helpfulness, and social responsibility) and teaches needed social skills and commitment to 87 prosocial valucs, I t is bascd on the idca that children need to learn both specific skills and the accumulated moral wisdom of our culture with appropriate social conventions. There are five kinds of experiences that are deemed important for the development of children's prosocial orientations: l. supportive: adult-child relationships--children are inclined to emulate adults with whom they have positive relationships; 2. exposure to societal values--not only social customs and conventions but also the accumulated moral wisdom of adult society; expose children to prosocial models and explain the reasons for moral action; 3. opportunities for peer interaction and prosocial action--help children to develop self-control, increase their moral and social understanding and concern for their lcllows; 4. opportunities to think about and discuss moral issues--work of structural developmentalists has demonstrated that children strive to develop coherent moral systems, and that this is fostered by providing opportunities to discuss and think about moral situations; as children approach adolescence their trust in adult authority weakens and they strive for independence; at this stage they will need to have reasons for , moral action that they regard as their own; 88 5. experiencc:~ that promote understanding of others--the ability to take the pcrsj~cctive ol' othcrs has becn proposed by cognitive- dcvclopmcntal theorists as a central ingredient of prosocial action. The results of this programme showed that enrolled students were more helpful and cooperative and more frequently displayed affection, concern, support, and encouragem.entt oward one another. They showed better cognitive social problem-solving skills and strategies and were generally more committed to certain democratic values. Programmc children were more likely to engage in assertion responsibility (i.e., state one's own position even though it seems unlikely to prevail.) They were more likely to state belief in .equality of representation and participation, a belief that all members of a group have a right to participate in group's decisions and activities. In summary, teachers in the CDP programme provided children with instruction on how to be fair, caring, and responsible in the classroom. They also provided opportunities to think about and discuss the meaning and importance of fbndamental prosocial values and to practice these values primarily in the classroom but also in the school at large, at home, and in the community arc important. The CDP programme demonstrated that the combination of instruction, practice, and reflection is a powerful way for children to learn. 89 ii) Hyde school: The Hyde School is a private boarding high school that attempts to not only transform the school but also the entire child-rearing community (Gauld, 1993). It has as its purpose to: 1. motivate students to a larger purpose in life; 2. empower parents as the primary teachers; and 3. elevate teachers to a new professionalism in which they guide the entire growing-up process. The programme has been in operation for over 25 years and is guided by thc fundamental bclicf'that each child is gifted with a unique potential for excellence that defines his or her destiny and purpose in life. It is an education programme that requires both individuals and the school to concentrate on developing chariicter, specifically, courage, integrity, concern for others, curiosity, and ledership. The school is organized around a comprehensive curriculum for growth, challenging students in four areas of life: (a) intellectual, (b) physical, (c) 'spiritual, and (d) emotional. Students are expected to meet world-class standards not only in academic areas, but also in CO-curricular areas of performing arts, athletics, school leadership, and community service. They must take ownership for the success of the school through regular jobs and through taking responsibility for the growth of other students. The diverse requirements are supplemented by activities such as self-reflection through 90 journaling and sharing with others. The highest objective is that students (and teachers and parents) become ready to commit themselves to continuous improvement towards excellence in all their endeavors: at school, at home, and in the workplace. This is an impressive set of goals that would be worthy for other schools to emulate. iii) City A4onte::sori School. The City Montessori School (CMS), a private, nonprofit school in Lucknow, India, provides an exemplary education for students by focuing on both academic excellence and children's emotional and spiritual well-being. Four building blocks or pillars (universal values, excellence, global understanding, and service) are guiding principles for educating the whole child (Cottom, 1996). The Council for Global Education is assisting diffusion of this programme. The teaching of universal values advocated by CMS begins with the concept that a child, as a human being, is endowed with spiritual capacities. This is translated into providing a spiritual foundation for all of the child's activities, be they academic, physical, or social. Some of the values focused on at CMS are trustworthiness, compassion, ltumility, courage, kindness, andp atience. Global understanding, with its concomitant convergence on achieving world peace, focuses on helping students develop an awareness of the int&dependence of all things and a willingness to accept responsibility for the fate of the planet; and for the well-being of all humanity. This is accomplished by showing h0.w personal, local, and regional concerns connect to the challenges facing the entire world. Consultation and collective decision- making are integral processes to this aspect of the curriculum. This understanding is carried into action via the fourth pillar: service. Students are encouraged to put their knowledge, values, and training into practice by engaging in service projects. Each student must perform a certain amount of school and community services such as tutoring the illiterate or helping the rural poor. Students are taught that labour has a dignity in and of itself and tltnt no job is beneatlz a person when it is clone in an attitude of service to otlzers. Blackham as quoted by Sharma (1998) suggests a fourfold approach to moral education in schools, including some direct teaching but having three further elements deliberately built into complement this. They are diversity within a broad curriculum, and guidance and orientation throughout a child's school career. According to some the approaches to moral education can be broadly classified into three. They are the Direct Approach, Indirect or Integrated Approach, and the Incidental Approaclz. 92 In the first method, moral values/virtues are taught to the children directly. Separate syllabus, textbooks, timetable and specially trained teachers are required to apply this method. Indirect approach requires no specific syllabus or textbooks to inculcate values in children. The existing school curriculum itself is enough for this. Teaching of any subject provides ample opportunities for the teachers to inculcate values in children. The teachers are to be very keen to find out the values contained in each subject and each lesson and they should highlight them. Here values are not taught directly, but the teacher provides the platform for the values to be 'caught' by the children. This approach is based on the concept of 'the Hidden Curriculum'. It refers to unofficial instructional influences, which may either support or weaken the attainment of-manifest goals. It indicates that some of the outco~neso f schooling are not formally recognized. "... hidden either because pupils are not aware of what teachers intend them to learn as a result of working within a particular school organisation or because the values and attitudes learned via the hidden curriculum are not directly intended by teachers but are merely a by-product of what is planned"(Sharma, 1998, p. 38) The third one is known as the Incidental approach. Here, every action of the child in the school is watched and scrutinized by the teacher. His good 93 or evil actions are brought to the noticc of'thc child himself and he is made to imbibe the valucs. Here the teachers nourish the child's capacity for moral judgement. Sharma (1998) talks of three different approaches to moral education. They are: l. Critical ~ n i u i~r ~ ~ r o o(CcIAl t) Moral education should ideally begin with critical enquiry and clarification of values. He quotes Dewey (1916), "The task of moral education is to help children discover what is right through constant critical enquiry and this harnesses. their inherent energies for the pursuit of sound values", (p. 14). 2. Total Atmosp heric Approach (TAA) Moral education based on this conception involves the use of activities, exercises and.p rocedures in the entire school programme that habituate children in right modes of conduct, thus strengthening their character (p. 16). 3. The Integrated Concurrent Approach (ICA) In this approach problems or topics are the main focus of inquiry, experience and action in school atmosphere. Units of study are centered on topics of everyday school and out of school experiences (p. 17). 94 Sharma, .[.N(.1 998) opines that the values identified and listed by NCERT cannot be emphasised at all levels. He recommends values such as discrimination between right and wrong, respect for all religions, dependabi1ity;proper utilization of time and resources, service to others, humanism and love for mankind, creativity and scientific temper, national integration, etc., at the secondary level. He identifies the following five steps for inculcation of human values through school programmes. l) Knowing: the child must be made aware of the values through 2) Believing: the child must develop faith in those values 3) Making judgement: the child must be provided with conflicting situations to judge the implications of related values 4) Action: the child may be encouraged to practice these values in actual life situations 5) Spontaneous action: the various programmes of the schools must take the child to that stage where the practice of values becomes spontaneous and immediate 95 Ryan and Bohlin (1999) outlined thrce ways in which schools currently are addressing the issue of character education: the values approach, the views approach, and the virtues approach. A brief description of each approach follows: i ) The Values Approach This approach gives children opportunities to deal with moral and non- moral issues and to make personal decisions. This approach is based on the idea that children need practice in sorting out their own values. The teacher identifies the issues and provides the setting for addressing them; however, the teacher does not attempt to influence or direct values. This approach is popular because many teachers and schools fear that they will be accused of indoctrinating students or imposing their values on students. Ryan and Bohlin criticize the values approach because it does not evoke a moral commitment, nor does it lead to a better person. ii) The Views Approach ' In this approach students engage in discussions of controversial issues. It is pointed out that the discussions often are very intense and frequently lead to anger. The teacher's role is to hclp the student identifL with, and eventually adopt, the correct views. However, Ryan and Bohlin also are critical of this approach because they see the end product as simply being the adoption of intellectual posit ions. iii) The Virtues Approuclr The goal of this approach is to have students develop virtues, including diligence, sincerity, personal accountability, courage, and perseverance. Ryan and Bohlin favour the virtues approach because they believe it secures an internal commitment on the part of students to lead a good life. They argue that it is our virtues which make us better and happier people. Virtues enable us to give shape to and lead worthy lives. Sridhar .in his guest lecture (as available in web site) gives a very exhaustive account of the different approaches to value education. "The field of value educaticln is as broad as life itself and touches every aspect of human life, personality ,and education. Whether or not they offer specific programs, educational institutions provide some kind of value education. In many institutions, the curriculum of value education is formal and direct, while in large majority of schools it is informal and indirect. What makes learning and acquisition of values different fiom other aspect of school curriculum is that learning of values cannot be reduced and restricted to classroom instruction alone. The pupils learning of values in the school are a continuation of their learning in their family, community and through mass media. Therefore, the school should take into cognizance and utilize all types of social and educational influences affecting the development of values in pupils for value education purpose. 97 l'hc inclhods and stratcgics of valuc education are many and varied the selection of, which dcpcnds much upon the values choscn, sources of development of these values and many other limiting factors. The entire school curriculu,mf unctions as important sources of value education. The democratic pract:~.caen d activities sponsored though a student self government contributes effectively for value learning. There is no way in which children can avoid catching values and attitudes from their teachers. Values education in schools, therefore, is egected through direct, indirect, incidental methods. Values get transmitted via both the implicit or hidden and planned curriculum The point emphasized is that the entire process of value education is a highly comprehensive and complex one that involves a wide range and variety of learning experiences. All forms of learning cannot be provided though single source or teacher should draw from a variety of learning resources either independently or in combination. With this analysis and understanding background, the following methods and techniques may be suggested. 1. Classroom learning activities methods/approach 2. ' Practical activities method 3. socialized techniques and activities 4. Incidental learning method l . Classroom Learning Activities Mellrod A very basic purpose of value education is to develop the moral autonomy of the learner and also sensitivities of value content of school and classroom activities. The methods and activities should be free fkom attempt to indoctrinate the learner. Capacity for value judgement and internalization are to be achieved by exposing students to a variety of experiences and activities. This may include reading, listening, discussions, narration, direct presentation of ideas by the teacher and other strategies. These strategies should be used with any of the following sources of value education (a) Biographies (b) Stories (c) Extracts form essays, articles, classics and newspapers (d) Parables, proverbs, quotations and poems (e) value/moral dilemmas (f) classroom incidents/anecdotes/ conflicts. These sources can be used in many different ways to involve the learner in thinking and reasoning about values. The classroom teachers can prepare action plans/lesson plans using these sources, a few illustrations of which are discussed here. (a) BIOGRAPHIES: A biography is a written document on the life history of an en~inenpt ersonality. Riographics of scientist, social reformers and spiritual leaders acquaint one with their life, thoughts, and actions and various forces, which inouldcd thcir livcs as dcpictcd by biographer. For being used as material for value education it should be condensed in such a way as to highlight the virtues and their development in the life of the eminent personality. 'l'llc elltirc hiogri~pliyI nay hc rctold after rearranging the content bringing together all the related events depicting each one of the values hidden in it. (b) STORIES: Stories of various kinds are attractive to students of varied age groups. Stories may be presented by the teacher or presented by students themselves, fdllowed by discussions, questioning and analysis. The teacher should use his direction in selecting the story appropriate to the developmental'level of the learner. Simple and short stories such as fairy tales and fables are better suited to elementary level children. Stories could be used to develop value awareness of different kinds. Fables and fairy tales could be used to develop values of kindness, love for living beings, environmental awareness and courage. (C) EXTRACTS FROM ESSA YS, ARTICLES, CLASSICS AND NEWSPAPERS: Non-fictional writings dealing with value themes, such as essays, articles and news paper reports may be used for value education purpose. These Inay be scholarly writings on issues of social and national concern appearing in books and journals. Students may be asked to collect articles and writings form various sources, encouraged to write articles on a chosen value theme. Teachers can frame questions that provoke in the learner to think and reflect on many issues of the values covered. (d) VALUE/MORAL DILEMMAS FOR DISCUSSIONS: Value or moral dilemmas may be used as important instructional strategies in value education. They present very effective situations for learners to think, to reason and to make moral judgement and arrive at a decision after considering all issucs involved in the moral dilemma. The dilemmas constructed may be on issues like environmental conservation, scientific temper, social justice and equality. A teacher can prepare a lesson or initiate discussion on a dilemma indicating all the essential steps involved. In view of the great potential of dilemmas in developing the capacity for moral judgement moral dilemmas are used as research tools in the study of moral development and judgement in children. The teacher can initiate discussion on the dilemma chosen by giving the pros and cons of the issues involved. The student may be asked to react to each issue with reason. There may be a student leader to monitorlrecord the proceedings of the discussion. 2. Practical Activities MethoNApproaclr Value education merely by cognitive precept is not enough even though it is essential. Children should engage themselves in life-related practical activities, which will promote the application of principles and values in daily life. The essence of practical approach is that they provide the learners with suitable opportunities to practice and live their lives according to the principles and values they have perceived and understood. Under the rubric of practical activities a wide range of activities may be organized. Practically, all subjects of school curriculum lead to project or practical work and this may be designed as to make it relev~.nto value education. A sound programme of valuc education may include a combination of a few or all activities mentioned below. (a) School cainpus/classroom maintenance activities (b) Social forestry/community development activities N R 4671. (c) Work experience related activities (d) Organizing campaigns on community sanitation, literacy, environmental awareness, AIDS prevention awareness (e) Yoga, meditation and prayer sessions Eradication of social evils campaign activities (gender inequality, dowry, alcoholism.. .) CO-curricular/self government activities Organizini: such value related practical activities poses some practical problems to the s1:hool. Great care should be taken in planning and organizing practical activities mentioned above. 3. Socialized Tecr iniques/approach es A variety clf group-oriented techniques may be used in value education. The learner-socialized techniques are involved in activities and experiences that best represent hnctions and problems of agents of socialization. The experience the lcarncr gcts hcrc is not thc sane type of experience deriving from direct encounters with reality, nor is it completely indirect and abstract as in the case of cognitive area. They are the simplified versions of real social experiences and one ncccssary and useful when the reality is too abstract and obscured. These include social role-playing enacting and modelling. The effectiveness of the social experiences planned to promote healthy development among children could be increased with the better understanding of social r ~ l e - ~ l a ~ i nCghi.l dren in various social situations assume some roles. One can understand the interrelationship between the expectations of other and the identification of the self in the social role-playing the learner should be guided properly to understand the role behavior and enactment. Role-playing activities should be organized based on the life experiences and age level of students. Expected role of an ideal student, teacher, parent, and patriot should encourage student to take role-taking activities voluntarily. Negative precepts are to be discouraged in role-playing. In simulation activities the learner pretends to be in real situation and portrays events and characteristics in the situation. Modelling is a strategy in which qualities of an individual who is considered to possess desirable or ideal values worth emulating are presented to the learners as a model. A broad indication of the kinds of activities possible under the heads of socialized strategies for value education purpose is listed below- a. Dramatization activities like staging play, dramas, both of traditional folk and modern on value themes. b. Enacting opportunities to take up and practice the role of different kinds, taking the role from epics/scriptures. c. ' Modelling exercise, the ideal persons and groups on themes such as 1) gender inequality 2) problems pertaining to women's role and education 3) caring animals and human beings 4) problems related to environmental protection 5 ) consequences of air water pollution (~onstrbcting the image through discussions, questioning and - developing awareness about the specific problems in the above mentioned areas). 4. Incidental Learning Method An incident is an episode or experience in the life of an individual or group. The incidental approach has a very good point in its favour in that it can be used both inside as well as outside the classroom for value education puqoses. It con:;ists of identi@ing the wrong or right actions of an individual or group, eithcr pre-planned to occur or observed by accident, and reprimanding or rewarding those concerned. This approach is psychologically effective since il: is like striking the iron while it is hot. Episodes or incidents 104 centercd on expcricncc of everyday occurrence in the life of children can help children identify themsclvcs with them and understand their own thought powers and feelings. Incidents are to be recorded properly and discussed to promote better insight into human problems. Several attempts have been made to evolve methodologies suitable to the development of values in children and youth. Supreka (1976), as quoted by Sridhar, outlines eight different approaches to value Education, which may be briefly stated as under: l. Evocation Approach: The students are encouraged to make spontaneously free, non-rational choices, without thought or hesitation. It provides an environment, which allows maximum freedom for students, and provides a provocative situation for which spontaneous reactions are elicited e.g. the reaction to a picture of starving children. 2. Inculcation Approach: Students are forced to act according to specific desired values. I! positive and negative reinforcement by the teacher helps value inculcatio~l. This can be done by a teacher's natural actions and responses. 'This time honored method has been notably unsuccessful. 3. Awareness Approaclt: This approach helps students to become aware and identify their own values. The students are encouraged to share their experiences. The teacher presents value-laden situations or dilemmas through 105 rcadillgs, lilllis. rolc-pl;~yi~lgs, lnall group discussions and simulation. Students thus crlgagc thcmscivcs in the process of making inferences about values from the thoughts, feelings, beliefs or behavior of themselves and others. 4. Moral Reasclning Approach: Kohlberg's theory of six stages of moral development is the framework most frequently used in this approach. The teachers set up b:arning experiences, which will facilitate moral development. These experiences fall under the general category of what Kohlberg calls role taking. The critical factor in role taking is empathy. Through placing themselves in a role and experiencing the process of deciding, students can begin to see moral decisions in a larger framework than their single point of view. It consists of the students discussing a dilemma and by reasoning they attain a higher level of knowledge. In this way by discussion and reflection students are encouraged to express a value position rather than compromise on a consensus. 5. Analysis Approach: The group or individuals are encouraged to study social value problems. They are asked to clarify value questions, and identify values in conflict. They are encouraged to determine the truth and evidence of purported facts, and arrive at value decisim, applying analogous cases, inferring and testing value principles underlying the decision. 6. Vdue clari/catiurr Appruoclr: It helps students to use both rational thinking and emotional awareness to examine personal behavior patterns and classify and actualize values. This approach has been detailed by Simon et al., (1972) where the child is inadc to jot down a self-analysis-reaction work sheet, consisting of drawings, questions and activities. 7. Commitment Approach: It enables the students to perceive themselves not merely as passive reactors or as free individuals but as inner-relative members of a social group and system. The Action Project helps to clarify and restructure one's value system and to ascertain the depth of commitment of one's values. 8. The Union Approach: The purpose is to help students to perceive themselves and act not as separate egos but as part of a larger inter-related whole-the human race, the world, and the cosmos. The Report on the UNESCO APIED on Education for Affective Development has identified the following approaches that can be used for teaching values in character building activities. l . Telling: A proccss for dcvcloping valucs that cnables a pupil to havc a clear picture of a value-laden situation by means of his own narration of the situation. 107 2. Inculcating: An approach geared towards instilling and internalizing norms into person's own value systems. 3. Persuading: the process of convincing the learner to accept certain values and behave in accordance with what is acceptable. 4. Modelling: A strategy in which a certain ~ndividual perceived as epitomizing desirablelideal values is presented to the learners as a model. 5. Roleplnying: Acting out the true feelings of the actor(s) by taking the role of another person but without the risk of reprisals. 6. Simulating: A strategy in which the learners are asked to pretend to be in a certain situation called for by the lesson and then to portray the events and also by imitating the character's personality. 7. Problem solving: An approach wherein a dilemma is presented to the learners asking them what decisions they are going to take. 8. Discussing' si'tuations, stories, pictures, etc: This technique asks the learners to deliberate on and explain the details in the lesson. 9. Studying biog~laphieso f great men: This is an approach that makes use of the lives of great men as the subject matter for trying to elicit their good needs and thoughts worthy for emulation. 108 10. Moralizing: The process of working out a sense of morality through activc structuring and restructuring OS onc's social experiences (e.g. inoral reasoning and analysis) . 11. Values ctcrr~jictrtiori: Valucs clarilication as a strategy for values development may be considered as learner-centered. It relies heavily on the pupils' ability tcl process his beliefs, behave according to his beliefs and to make a decision whenever confronted with a value dilemma. (Synopsis of lecture on "Metli~odologoy f Value Education", Value Orientation in Teacher Education). Mat hur ( 199 1) suggested some value clarif ling strategies for the inculcation of values. They are: ( l ) value voting (2) pupil-reaction sheet (3) clarlfiing reJponse (4 )i ncomplete value, and ( 5 ) critical incident sheet. . Metha (19 9 1) puts forward three inethods of teaching-learning, namely trial-and-error learning, direct teaclring, and identification, which help in the inculcation of values. Concluding Remarks: A detailed and thorough analysis of the various theories and approaches suggested by different experts and investigators in the field of MoralNalue Education reveals that the pupils require something concrete to follow. The curriculum, of which the textbooks play a major role, can effectively contribute thc lion's share to the campaign of value orientation. The modern trend is to use all the methods, which are appropriate in a particular situation together so that the merits of these methods apply their cumulative effect on the child. At the secondary school level the child is in the formal operational stage, as Piaget puts it. As the child is capable of abstract reasoning the Indirect method of moral education can be utilized effectively. Many, to the direct method, prefer the Indirect method for they think that deliberate efforts for inculcation of values may lead to adverse results. The 'Working Group' constituted by the Ministry of Education, Government of India (1981) recommends introduction of moral education through the &sting school subjects and through school activities. As Piaget is of the opinion that advancement in age is responsible for moral development the child is supposed to have attained Autonomy at the beginning of his teens. One cannot say where the stage of Heteronomy stops and Autonomy begins during moral development. Therefore, reinforcement with regard to moral values is desirable at the secondary school stage. The moral education curriculum suggested by the Ramakrishna Institute of Moral and Spiritual Education, Mysore, consists of values related to personal cleanliness, habits, moral conduct, etc. at the early age itself. According to this, children belonging to the age group of 13 to 17 years are to 110 be introduced to highcr values such as obedience to rules, necessiiy for an ideal - a worthy purpose for l# b(lse(1 on humanism or spirituality, abolition of social evils like do wry system, drinking, gambling, smoking, corruption, bribery, nepotism, etc., world citizenship, world peace, human brotherhood, dangers of pollution etc. At this stage children should possess capacities such as moral thinking, resolving moral conflicts and moral issues etc., and should have attained moral autonomy. ii) THE ENGLISH CURRICIJLUM The different aspects of a curriculuin in general and of English in particular are discussed below. The Curricular Framework The National Council for Educational Research and Training (as available in its web site) presses the need of a value-based curriculum in our schools. It states that the past five decades after independence have witnessed constant erosion of the essential social, moral and spiritual values and an increase in cynicism at all levels. Although schools are not isolated islands untouchcd by thc prevailing mood of indiffcrcnce and even disregard for thc cntirc valuc system, thcir potential for and role in the task of guiding the national psyche cannot be underestimated. Schools can and must strive to restore and sustain the universal and eternal values oriented towards the unity and integration ~f the people, their moral and spiritual growth enabling them to realise the treasurc within. l'coplc must realise who they are and what is the ultimate purpose of human life. Self-recognition would come to them through proper value education that would facilitate their spiritual march from the l level of sub-consciousness to that of super consciousness through the different intermediary stages. Value-based education would help the nation fight against all kinds of fanaticism, ill will, violence, fatalism, dishonesty, avarice, corruption, exploitation and drug abuse. The National Policy on Education (1986) lays emphasis on equity and social justice in education to promote the country's unique socio-cultural identity and to contribute to national cohesion, promoting tolerance, scientific temper and the concerns enshrined in the Indian constitution. The recommendatior.~o f the Justice J.S. Verma Committee on Fundamental Duties of Citizens pave the way for strong commitment to basic human values and social justice. The core components of school curriculum as mentioned in the National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education - A Framework (1988) are all the more relevant in the present scenario. The Constitutional Amendment incorporating the ten Fundamental Duties of Citizens is a valuable pointer to what the country expects of its citizens. All these must find a prominent place in the total education system of India including the school environs. 112 The Schoc~lC urriculum in 1988 was designed to enable the learner to acquire knowlcdgc to dcvclop conccpts and inculcate values commcnsuratc with the social, c:ultural, economic and environmental realities at the national and international levels. The social values aimed at were friendliness, cooperativeness, compassion, self- discipline, courage, love for social justice, etc. Truth, righleous conduct, peace, love and non-violence are the core universal values that can become the foundation for building the value-based education programme as per the recommendations of the S.B. Chavan Committee Report submitted to the Indian Parliament in February 1999. These five universal values represent the five domains of the human personality - intellectual, physical, emotional, psychological and spiritual - are' "correlated with the five major objectives of education, namely knowledge, skill, balance, vision and identity." (81st Report on Value-Based Education presented to Rajya Sabha on 26 February 1999, Item No.8). Besides, curriculum.in schools has to develop the key qualities like regularity and punctuality, cleanliness, self-control, industriousness, sense of duty, desire to serve, responsibility, enterprise, creativity, and sensitivity to greater equality, fraternity democratic attitude and sense of obligation to environmental protection. The main thrust areas of Indian school education, as mentioned in the National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education: A Framcwork, 1988, dc~nandsa Srcsh look. Somc of this merit reformulation in the light of the country's cxperiencc in the field of school education and the others have to, be re-affirmed. Some new thrust areas may also need to be added in the light of the changes all around. School education in the present scenario has to have the main thrust on the following: Inculcation and sustenance of personal, social, national and spiritual values like cleanliness and punctuality, good conduct, tolerance and justice; a sense of national identity and respect for law and order and truthfulness. Elimination of poverty, ignorance, ill-health, casteism, dowry, untouchability, and violence, and ensuring equity, health, peace and prosperity. Broad based general education to all learners up to the end of the secondary stage to help them become life long learners and acquire basic life skills and high standards of Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Emotional Quotient (EQ), and Spiritual Quotient (SQ). A common scheme of studies for the elementary and secondary stages with emphasis on the skill of "learning how to learn" with flexibility of content and mode of learning to suit all learners including those with special needs is envisaged. Inclusion of Fundamental Duties and the core curricular areas at all the stages of school education is of utmost importance. Human Rights including the rights of the child, especially those of the girl child are to be brought to the focus. Since India is the most ennobling experiment in spiritual CO-existence, education about social, moral and spiritual values and religions cannot be left entirely to home and the community. School education in the country seems to have developed some kind of neutrality toward the basic values and the community in general has little time or inclination to know about religions in the right spirit. This makes it imperative for the Indian school curriculum to include inculcation of the basic values and an awareness of all the major religions of the country as one of the central components. Value education and education about religions would not form a separate subject of study or examination at any stage. These would be so judiciously integrated with all tlte subjects oj' study in the scholastic areas and all the activities and programmes in the CO-scholastica reas that the objectives thereof would be directly and indirectly achieved in the classrooms, at the school assembly places, play-grounds, cultural centres and such other places. A comprehensive programme of .v;~luien culcation must start at the very earliest stage of school education as a regular part of school's daily routine. The entire educational process has to bt: such that the boys and girls of this country are able to know 'good', love 'good' and do 'good' and grow into mutually tolerant citizens. The comparative study of the 'philosophies' of religions can be taken up at the secondary and higher secondary stages. Common Chre ('omponenls. Thc need for strcngthcning national identity is being felt now much more than ever before. As such there is a strong plea for promoting national integration, and social cohesion by cultivating values as enshrined in the Constitution of [ndia through school curriculum. With this in view, the ten core component5 identified in the National Policy on Education, 1986 need to be reaffirmed. They are as follows: The history of India's freedom movement; The Constitutional obligations; the content essential to nurture national identify; India's common cultural heritage; egalitarianism, democracy and secularism; equality of sexes; protection of the environment; removal of social barriers; observance of the small family norm; and inculcation of scientific temper. The Fundamental Duties as laid down in Article 51A of Part IVA of the Indian Constitution also have to be included in the core components. These are to: (a) abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem; (b) cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for freedom; (c) uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India; (d) defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so; (e) promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood among all the people of India transcending religious, linguistic and regional or sectional diversities; to renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of woman; (f) valuc and prcscrvc thc rich heritage of our composite culture; (g) protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, wild life and to have compassion for the living creatures; (h) develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of enquiry and reform; (i) safeguard public property and abjure violence, and (j) strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavour and achievement. These core components need to be integrated in school curriculum in a suitable manner. It is envisaged that they would help in instilling a nationally shared perception and values and creating an ethos and value system in which a common Indian idcntity could be strengthened. General Objectives of Education: ducat ion liberates human beings from the shackles of ignorance, privation and misery. It must also lead to a non-violent and non-exploitative social system. School curriculum, therefore, has to aim at enabling learners to acquire knowledge, develop understanding and inculcate skills, positive attitudes, values and habits conducive to the all-round development of their personality. Young girls and boys are to be empowered through education to increase their cal~ability.P aradigm shifts are therefore necessary to support a curriculum that values the interaction of the process and the content. Besides, the development of intrinsic values and the emotional intelligence of learners is also crucial. School curriculum has therefore, to help to generate and promote among the learners: language abilities of listening, speaking, reading, writing and thinking and communication skills - verbal and visual-needed for social living and effective participation in the day to day activities; mathematical abilities to develop a logical mind that would help learners perform mathematical operations and apply them in every day life; scientific temper characterised by the spirit of enquiry, problem- solving, courage to question and ob-jectivity leading to elimination of obscurantism, superstition and fatalism, while at the same time, sustaining and emphasising the indigenous knowledge ingrained in the Indian tradition; understanding of the environment in its totality both natural and social, and their interactive processes, the e~lvironmentalp roblems and the ways and means to preserve the environment., appreciation of the sacrifices and contributions made by the fieedom fighters and social workers fiom rural, tribal and weaker sections from all the regions of the Indian society, particularly from the North-East and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, in India's fieedom struggle and social regeneration, ant1 readiness to follow their ideals; appreciation for the need of a balanced synrhesis between the change oriented technologies and the continuity of the country's traditions and heritage; knowledge of and respect for the national symbols and the desire and dctcrmination to uphold the ideals of national identity and unity; deep senss of patriotism and nationalism tempered with the spirit of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam; understanding of the positive and the negative impact of the processes of globalisation, liberalisation ancl localisation in the context of the country; qualities clustered around the persclnal, social, moral, national and spiritual values that make a person humane ;md socially effective, giving meaning and direction to life; knowledge, attitude and habits necessary for keeping physically and mentally fit and strong in perfect harmony with the earth, water, air, fire and the sky; qualities and cha.racteristics necessary for self-learning, self-directed learning and life-long learning leading to the creation of a learning society; capacity not only to process information but also to understand, reflect and internalise and develop insight; willingness to work hard, entrepreneurship and dignity of manual work necessary for increasing productivity, obtaining job-satisfaction and creating wealth generating systems; acquisition of pre- vocational/vocational skills; appreciation of the various consequences of large families and over population and need for checking population growth; and cultivating proper understanding of and attitude toward healthy sex related issues and respectful attitude toward members of the opposite sex. The emphasis on the 'learner-centred approach' necessitates carehl determination of the objectives of education to be achieved at a particular stagelclass in keeping with the norms of physical, mental, social, and emotional development of the learners of the relevant age group. However, the level of achieveinent with regard to a particular objective will be rising from one class to another in a spiral fashion.. At the secondary level, the characteristic developments that have taken place during the upper primary stage get strengthened. Thinking with abstract concepts, establishing social identity, and giving importance to the peer groups increase all this considerably. Therefore, at this crucial stage it is also necessary to promote social interactions among children. For effective learning and for intellectual development, learners have to cooperate with their friends, share their experiences, discuss their discoveries and argue out their differences of opinion. Characteristics other than the intellectual ones also provide important guidelines for designing curriculum which could be geared to the all-round development of the learners as individuals, and their development also in the context of the national goals and the socio-cultural priorities. Learners' physical, social and emotional characteristics, attitudes and interests that emerge in them during childhood, early adolescence and mid-adolescence, should be carehlly taken into consideration while determining the objectives, content and strategies of curriculum and its transaction at the pre-primary, primary, upper primary and secondary stages. For the development of beliefs, habits and attitudes associated with physical well-being, emotional maturity and proper social orientation, the years of pre- primary and primary education are the most impressionable and formative period of the child's life. This fact has to be realized in all seriousness by the curriculum designers and practitioners so as to provide appropriate and adequate learning experiences to the learners. Thc dcvclop~ncntal fcatures of pupils indicate the need for gradual introduction of Icarning experiences related to ideas, attitudes and skills associated with moral values, national ideals and priorities, socio-cultural cohesion and .global fraternity. Systematic provision of information and guidance that would help the youth in making right choices of career and vocation for themselves must be ensured toward the end of the upper primary stage and particularly during the secondary stage of education. The general objectives of education will be realized through the content and learning experiences related to different subject areas. However, thc clnphasis would shift Srom hctual ltnowlcdge to the process of understanding,' thinking and internalising. Toward all-round development of personality, value education, health and physical education, art education and work education, have to be given appropriate importance in the school curriculum. The inter-connections among various subject areas have to be clearly established. A common scheme of studies, therefore, is advocated. From cla,sses I to X the core component areas and values shall form an integral pan of the curriculum at all the stages and may suitably be integrated in 21ijyerent subject areas. Flexibility in the selection of content and.organising learning experiences must be inbuilt in the system. Lungutigc. leiirtrirrg cil Ilte primary stage is crucial to not only meanitz&ul learning in (ill 111e siibject areas but also to the learner's emotional, cognitive nncl socicil development. New entrants with poor language background remain poor learners and poorer performers in all areas unless specially helped in language skills. Failure to teach language skills properly and adequately in the early years will lead to difficulties in learning subsequently through the upper primary, the secondary and the higher secondary stages. Language education has the greater potential as a means to develop, progres:.ively through various stages, attitudes and values related to all the core components by incorporating appropriate themes and adopting suitable teaching; learning strategies. Language education must aim at encouraging independent thinking, fiee and effective expression of opinions and logical interpretation of the present and the past events. It must motivate learners to say things their way, nurture their natural creativity and imagination and thus make them realise the basic difference between their verbal language and the language of Mathematics. These are the reasons why learning of language ought to find a central place in the total educational process. In this context the following focal points merit serious consideration: Despite general acceptance of the central importance of language education in principle, practical effort for improving it has yet to be made at 122 all lcvcls in tl-c country. 'l'hc oral aspect of language has to be duly emphasised in.l;mguage education and oral examination in language must be made an integral part of the evaluation process. Emphasis will have to shift from the teachin,: of textbooks to extensive general reading and it would need continuous guidance and monitoring. Due stress is to be laid, in all language education programmes, on the ability to use the language in speech and in writing for academic purposes, at work place and in community in general. At the secondary stage (Classes IX and X) in the first language full mastery over 'the applied form of language and good acquaintance with literary language would be aimed at. Learners have to achieve maturity in oral and written expression in response to what they read or listen to. Understanding and appreciating the depth and diversities of humaln mind through the literary texts in prose and poetry must be ensured among the students. Teaching of grammar is to be systematically strengthened to facilitate the understanding and use of the subtle usages of language. Desirable attitudes and values must be inculcated through carefully selected language materials. Thus, high order communication skill in the first language, with grammatical accuracy and apvropriateness of style must be adequately underlined as the main objectives of first language learning at this stage. 123 In Eng/is/r, Ilindi and other modern Indian languages studied as second language at h i s slagc, thc capacity to use the language in speech and writing whenever needed in lif'e, and read it with reasonable speed for information and pleasure would be the most important objective. Grammar is not to be taught as a theoretical subject per se, but it would be taught as practical or fbnctional grammar in context with the minimum of theory. Thus, more and more aural and oral skills of language are to be emphasised at the primary stage, all the skills, i.e., listening, speaking, reading, and writing and thinking are to be aimed at in a balanccd manncr by the end of the upper primary stage, and slightly more attention is to be paid to the skills of reading and writing at the secondary stage. The most crucial and ultimate task of language education at all these levels remains to prepare the learners to use the languages effectively in either mode (spokenlwritten) whenever and wherever required in their day-to-day life situations of all sorts. Inshuctional Strategy: For effective transaction of the curriculum and achievement of curricular objectives, appropriate strategies should be used in organising aclivitics Ior students and i n providing learning activities. Instructional strategies may assume a variety of modes and may involve activities such as observation, collection of materials and information, demonstration and experimentation, project assignment, fieldwork and educational excursion and visits to museums, fairs and industrial units and places of historical important:. Playing games, participating in community singing, role-playing, dramatisation, discussion, debate, problem solving, discovery learning, creative writing, and supplementary reading may also form an important part of the total instructional strategies. A number of factors need to be considered while making use of a particular strategy: learners' capabilities, availability of resources, entry behaviour, school environment, objectives to be achieved, the nature of contcnt and the teachers' own preparation and mastery. The immediate environment of the learner, both natural and human, should be used for making learning concrete and meaninghl. Effective learning takes place when teachers are able to involve the students in the process of learning, by taking then1 l~eyondth e process of listening to that of thinking, reasoning and doing. In order to promote self-study skills use of library and resource centres needs to be encouraged. Receiving regular feedback for teaching and learning should be an in-built component of teaching-learning strategy. Continuous and comprehensive evaluation plays an important role in providing regular feedback.. It should be used for remediation. Different kinds of strategies are needed for slow, average and fast learners. Diagnostic and remedial instruction should be used for the slow learner. Enrichment materials and goal-directed teaching-learning stratcgies would help fast learners. CO- scholastic areas of learning should be handled adopting appropriate strategies and they be given due importance for developing the child's personality. Scvcral scllool activities sucli as lllorning assclnbly, cultural and recreational activities, school beautification, activities in community living, celebrations of days of riational importance, special days and weeks, and creative actir~itiesm, ay bt: organised/conducted with proper planning. The English Cul.riculum for Secondary Schools of Kerala The sourcebook for English teachers points out that the curriculum proposed for thz secondary level is the continuation of the process of reformation, whi :h underscores the acquisition of language abilities through the essentials of English. At the secondary stage the syllabus is designed to consolidate and hrther expand the language abilities already acquired and equip the learner with a rich vocabulary repertoire and the ability to handle them in speech, reading and writing. The main thrust of the new curriculum is on: i) equipping the learners with communicative skills to enable them to perform different language functions and ii) helping them to develop the cognitive and affective faculties. While inculcating the above abilities a conscious effort will be made to develop scientific temper as well as universal values like compassion, integrity, group consciousness, emotional integration, etc. These values and attitudes will suitably be reflected in the curricular materials. The approach Curricululn in English for secondary level is visualized based on the assumption that a language is best acquired through rich exposure to the language and through meaningful practice in using it for effective communication. As languages is communication, it has to be gained through development of communicative skills, for this, the learners are to be provided with an acquisition-rich environment in which there is real life situations for receiving and producing the language. Therefare, interactive, learner-centred and'language generating situations are to be facilitated. The methodology proposed here shifts the focus of instruction from the teacher to the learner. he process through which learning/acquisition takes place is given more emphasis than the product itself. Interaction is identified as the keystone of the whole learning process. The three dimensional interaction includes: i) interpersonal interaction in which the learner interacts with every other possible participants in communicative situations. ii) intrapersonal interaction when the learner interacts with himlherself at the psychological plane. iii) learner-material interaction where the learner interacts with the language input provided to and available to hirnther. Self-exploration and. inferences guide the learner to reach the desired goals. The learner is considered a dynamic biological entity who is capable of processing information, internalizing rules, assimilating them in abstraction, and applying those rules in newer and newer situations as and when demanded. Teaching of English would focus on learning of the language for communicative purpose. The situational and communicative language teaching methodology demands the techniques like working in pairslgroups, using language games, riddles, puzzles, jokes, etc., reciting poems, narratingldiscussing stories, anecdotes, etc., role-play, dramatizationlmiming, simulating real life situations, problem solving and decision making. Curriculum objectives The learner internalizes the emotive and linguistics aspects and various forms of spoken communication, listens to discourses on cultural heritage and develops a patriotic attitude, develops n sense of adventure/scientific outlook/,perserier~~nceet c. by listening to passages on similar aspects. The learner also uses appropriate expressions in familiar social situations such as 128 responding to crpolugics, uccepting aplnnations, offering help to friends, neiglrbours, etc., res/,o~rtli,rgto suclr offers of help-accepting or rejecting, accepting or accommodating others' preferences, and appreciating the good deeds of others and complementing them. From the analysis of the sourcebook it is clear that the new English curriculum, thc learner-centred approach, the methodology, the objectives, all provide ample ol~portunitiesf or inculcation of values. When the learners are in the process of self-learning the teachers can provide them sufficient material for value development in the form of stories, poems, discussions, group activities etc. which are impregnated with moral ideas and moral actions. In short, the English curriculum gives much opportunity for the practice of learner socialized techniques along with other techniques. Curriculum-Its Role in Value Inculcation The objectives of any kind of education are realized through the vehicle called curriculum. .The curriculum can play a major role in helping the child to achieve moral maturity. The role played by language and literature in this respect is incredible. Literature provides enough material for imparting moral values to the children. The poems, stories and prose pieces contain many moral ideas. On most occasions the main idea of the poems will be woven around moral values. The stories may also be woven around a concrete moral idea. A competent tcach8:r call use any moment of a language class to introduce moral values. Reo (1986) points out, "It is the duty of the language teacher to probe into the author':; mind and discover what moral ideas he desires to convey through the several events and characters in his literary work" (p. 160). The teacher is at liberty to criticize or modifL the author's ideas from a higher moral standpoinl. Appreciation of hcau